Chad
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Aldux
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/* Politics and government */
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{{Infobox Country
|native_name = {{lang|fr|''République du Tchad''}}<br/>{{rtl-lang|ar|<big>جمهورية تشاد </big>}}<br/>{{transl|ar|''Jumhūriyyat Tshād''}}
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Chad
|common_name = Chad
|image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg
|image_coat = Chad coa.png
|symbol_type = Coat of arms
|image_map = LocationChad.svg
|national_motto = "{{lang|fr|''Unité, Travail, Progrès''}}"{{spaces|2}}<small>([[French language|French]])<br/>"Unity, Work, Progress"</small>
|national_anthem = "{{lang|fr|''[[La Tchadienne]]''}}"
|official_languages = [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|demonym = Chadian
|capital = [[N'Djamena]]
|latd=12 |latm=06 |latNS=N |longd=15 |longm=02 |longEW=E
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[Heads of state of Chad|President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Chad|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name1 = [[Idriss Déby]]
|leader_name2 = [[Youssouf Saleh Abbas]]
|area_rank = 21st
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 1,284,000
|area_sq_mi = 495,753 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|percent_water = 1.9
|population_estimate = 10,780,600
|population_estimate_rank = 75th
|population_estimate_year = 2007
|population_census = 6,279,921
|population_census_year = 1993
|population_density_km2 = 7.9
|population_density_sq_mi = 20.4 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank = 212th
|GDP_PPP = $15.260 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 128th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,519
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 163rd
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Chad|Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from [[France]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = [[August 11]] [[1960]]
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.388
|HDI_rank = 170th
|HDI_year = 2007
|HDI_category = <font color="#e0584e">low</font>
|currency = [[Central African CFA franc|CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code = TCD
|time_zone = [[West Africa Time|WAT]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST = +1
|cctld = [[.td]]
|calling_code = 235
}}
'''Chad''' ({{lang-fr|Tchad}}; {{lang-ar|<big>تشاد</big>}}), officially known as the '''Republic of Chad''', is a [[landlocked country]] in [[central Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Libya]] to the north, [[Sudan]] to the east, the [[Central African Republic]] to the south, [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]] to the southwest, and [[Niger]] to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely [[desert]] climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of [[Africa]]". Chad is divided into three major geographical regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid [[Sahel]]ian belt in the centre and a more fertile [[Sudan (region)|Sudanese]] [[savanna]] zone in the south. [[Lake Chad]], after which the country is named, is the largest [[wetland]] in Chad and the second largest in [[Africa]]. Chad's highest peak is the [[Emi Koussi]] in the [[Sahara]], and [[N'Djamena]], the capital, is the largest city. Chad is home to over 200 different [[List of ethnic groups in Chad|ethnic]] and [[Languages of Chad|linguistic groups]]. Arabic and French are the official languages. [[Islam]] is the most widely practiced religion.
Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium BC, a series of states and empires rose and fell in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region. [[France]] conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]]. In 1960 Chad obtained independence under the leadership of [[François Tombalbaye]]. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting [[The Tombalbaye Regime#Rebellion in Chad|civil war]] in 1965. In 1979 [[Transitional Government of National Unity|the rebels]] conquered the capital and put an end to the south's hegemony. However, the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves until [[Hissène Habré]] defeated his rivals. He was overthrown in 1990 by his general [[Idriss Déby]]. Recently, the [[Darfur conflict|Darfur crisis]] in Sudan has spilt over the border and [[War in Chad (2005–present)|destabilised the nation]], with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad.
While [[List of political parties in Chad|many political parties]] are active, power lies firmly in the hands of President Déby and his political party, the [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]]. Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted [[coup d'état|coups d'état]] (see [[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)]] and [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)]]).
The country is one of the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|poorest]] and [[Corruption Perceptions Index|most corrupt]] countries in the world; most Chadians live in poverty as [[Agriculture in Chad|subsistence herders and farmers]]. Since 2003 [[petroleum|crude oil]] has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional [[cotton]] industry.
==History==
{{main|History of Chad}}
In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, and the region experienced a strong population increase. Some of the most important [[African archaeology|African archaeological]] sites are found in Chad, mainly in the [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region]]; some date to earlier than 2,000 BC.<ref>S. Decalo, ''Historical Dictionary of Chad'', 44–45</ref><ref name="Collelo">S. Collelo, ''Chad''</ref> For more than 2000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary peoples. The region became a crossroads of civilizations. The earliest of these were the legendary [[Sao civilisation|Sao]], known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the [[Kanem Empire]],<ref>D. Lange, "The Chad region as a crossroad"</ref><ref>S. Decalo, 6</ref> the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's [[Sahel]]ian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region.<ref name="Collelo"/> These states, at least tacitly [[Islam in Africa|Muslim]], never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to [[Arab slave trade|raid for slaves]].<ref>S. Decalo, 7–8</ref>
[[French colonial empires|French colonial expansion]] led to the creation of the {{lang|fr|''Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad''}} in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]].<ref>S. Decalo, 8, 309</ref> [[Colonial Chad|French rule in Chad]] was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation. The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the south was governed effectively; French presence in the north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect.<ref name="Collelo"/><ref>S. Decalo, 8–9</ref> After [[World War II]], France granted Chad the status of [[Overseas departments and territories of France|overseas territory]] and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the [[National Assembly of France|French National Assembly]] and a [[National Assembly of Chad|Chadian assembly]]. The largest political party was the [[Chadian Progressive Party]] (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on [[August 11]] [[1960]] with the PPT's leader, [[François Tombalbaye]], as its first [[Heads of state of Chad|president]].<ref>S. Decalo, 248–249</ref><ref name="Collelo"/><ref>S. Nolutshungu, ''Limits of Anarchy'', 17</ref>
[[Image:Rabah photo.jpg|thumb|right|upright|By defeating and killing [[Rabih az-Zubayr]] on [[April 22]] [[1900]], at the [[Battle of Kousséri]], France removed a major obstacle to its colonisation of Chad.]]
[[Image:Chadian soldier of WWII.jpg|thumb|left|15,000 Chadian soldiers fought for [[Free French Forces|Free France]] during WWII.<ref>S. Decalo, 53</ref>]]
Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated interethnic tensions. In 1965 Muslims began a [[Transitional Government of National Unity|civil war]]. Tombalbaye was [[Chadian coup of 1975|overthrown and killed]] in 1975,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917376,00.html "Death of a Dictator"], ''Time'', (April 28, 1975). Accessed on [[September 3]] [[2007]].</ref> but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions conquered the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.<ref>S. Decalo, 12–16</ref><ref>S. Nolutshungu, 268</ref> The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. [[Libya]] moved to fill the power vacuum and became [[Chadian-Libyan conflict|involved in Chad's civil war]].<ref>S. Nolutshungu, 150</ref> Libya's adventure [[Toyota War|ended in disaster]] in 1987; the French-supported president, [[Hissène Habré]], evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before<ref>S. Nolutshungu, 230</ref> and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.<ref>K. Pollack, ''Arabs at War'', 391–397</ref>
Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence; an estimated 40,000 people were killed under his rule.<ref>S. Macedo, ''Universal Jurisdiction'', 133–134</ref><ref>"Chad: the Habré Legacy"</ref> The president favoured his own [[Daza]] ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the [[Zaghawa]]. His general, [[Idriss Déby]], overthrew him in 1990.<ref>S. Nolutshungu, 234–237</ref>
Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a [[Constitution of Chad|new constitution]] by [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 1996|referendum]], and in 1996, Déby easily won a [[Chadian presidential election, 1996|competitive presidential election]]. He won a [[Chadian presidential election, 2001|second term]] five years later.<ref>R. East and R. Thomas, ''Profiles of People in Power'', 100</ref> [[Petroleum|Oil]] exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a [[War in Chad (2005–present)|new civil war]] broke out. Déby [[Chadian constitutional referendum, 2005|unilaterally modified the constitution]] to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.<ref>IPS, "{{lang|fr|Le pétrole au cœur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}"</ref> In 2006 Déby won [[Chadian presidential election, 2006|a third mandate]] in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] has warned that a [[genocide]] like that in [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]] may yet occur in Chad.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns]. BBC News, 16 February 2007</ref>
[[Battle of N'Djamena (2006)|In 2006]] and [[Battle of N'Djamena (2008)|in 2008]] rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both circumstances failed.<ref>{{cite news | title= Chad's leader asserts he is control| date=[[February 6]], [[2008]] | publisher=[[Associated Press|AP]] | url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20080206/ap_on_re_af/chad }}</ref>
==Politics and government==
{{main|Politics of Chad}}
{{seealso|Foreign relations of Chad}}
[[Image:Idriss Déby headshot.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The president of Chad, [[Idriss Déby]]]]
Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the [[Prime Minister of Chad|prime minister]] and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the [[National Assembly of Chad|National Assembly]], may declare a [[state of emergency]]. The president is [[Elections in Chad|directly elected]] by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed.<ref name="Term2">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4118482.stm|title=Chad votes to end two-term limit|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2007-09-20|date=2005-06-22}}</ref> This removal allows a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.<ref name="Term2"/> Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in [[Government of Chad|government]].<ref name="BGN">"Background Notes: Chad</ref><ref name="UNPACP">Republic of Chad - Public Administration Country Profile</ref> Corruption is rife at all levels; [[Transparency International]]'s [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2005 named Chad the most corrupt country in the world,<ref>BBC News, "Worst corruption offenders named"</ref> and it has fared only slightly better in the following years.<ref>[http://www.transparency.org/content/download/10825/92857/version/1/file/CPI_2006_presskit_eng.pdf "Corruption Perceptions Index 2006"] (PDF), Transparency International. Accessed on [[September 3]] [[2007]].</ref> In 2007, it scored 1.8 out of 10 on the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (with 10 being the least corrupt). Only [[Tonga]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Haiti]], [[Iraq]], [[Burma|Myanmar]], and [[Somalia]] scored lower.<ref name="trans">[http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007 "Corruption Perceptions Index 2007"] Transparency International. Accessed on December 16, 2007.</ref> Critics of President Déby have accused him of cronyism and tribalism.<ref name="tribe">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4907650.stm "'Isolated' Deby clings to power"] BBC News. April 13, 2006. Accessed on September 4, 2007.</ref>
Chad's legal system is based on [[law of France|French civil law]] and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the [[Supreme Court of Chad|Supreme Court]] and the [[Constitutional Council of Chad|Constitutional Council]], have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.<ref name="UNPACP"/><ref name="BGN"/>
The [[National Assembly of Chad|National Assembly]] makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]] (MPS), which holds a large majority.<ref name="BGN"/>
Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.<ref name="BGN"/> Since, [[list of political parties in Chad|78 registered political parties]] have become active.<ref name="HRP">"Chad", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, (2006)</ref> In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term<ref>"Chad", Amnesty International</ref> amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.<ref name="FH">"Chad (2006)", Freedom House.</ref> Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted.<ref>BBC News, "Chad leader's victory confirmed"</ref>
Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him.<ref>ICG, "{{lang|fr|Tchad: Vers le retour de la guerre?}}"</ref> These forces [[battle of N'Djamena|stormed the capital]] on [[April 13]] [[2006]], but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 troops in the country. Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the [[Military of Chad|Chadian army]] logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.<ref>PINR, "Instability on the March in Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic"</ref> Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American [[ExxonMobil|Exxon]] company in 1999.<ref>BBC News, "Chad's vulnerable president"</ref>
[[Education in Chad|Educators]] face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68% of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the [[University of N'Djamena]].<ref name="BGN"/><ref name="EB"/>
== Regions, departments, and sub-prefectures ==
{{main|Regions of Chad|Departments of Chad|Sub-prefectures of Chad}}
[[Image:Chad regions numbered.png|thumb|right|upright|Regions of Chad]]
Chad is divided into [[regions of Chad|18 regions]]. This system came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous [[prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]]. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the [[departments of Chad|50 departments]] within the regions. The departments are divided into [[Sub-prefectures of Chad|200 sub-prefectures]], which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.<ref>"Chad", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, (2004)</ref><ref>T. Ndang, "A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad?"</ref> The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by ''communautés rurales'', but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.<ref>Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project". World Bank.</ref> The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.<ref>"Tchad", UNESCO</ref> To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies,<ref>''La decentralisation au Tchad''</ref> but no local elections have taken place,<ref name="OECD">"Chad", OECD</ref> and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.<ref name="HRP"/>
The regions are:<ref>République du Tchad - Circonscriptions administratives.</ref>
<table><td><ol>
<li> [[Batha Region|Batha]]
<li> [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region|Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]]
<li> [[Chari-Baguirmi Region|Chari-Baguirmi]]
<li> [[Guéra Region|Guéra]]
<li> [[Hadjer-Lamis Region|Hadjer-Lamis]]
<li> [[Kanem Region|Kanem]]
</td><td><ol start=7>
<li> [[Lac Region|Lac]]
<li> [[Logone Occidental Region|Logone Occidental]]
<li> [[Logone Oriental Region|Logone Oriental]]
<li> [[Mandoul Region|Mandoul]]
<li> [[Mayo-Kebbi Est Region|Mayo-Kebbi Est]]
<li> [[Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Region|Mayo-Kebbi Ouest]]
</td><td><ol start=13>
<li> [[Moyen-Chari Region|Moyen-Chari]]
<li> [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddaï]]
<li> [[Salamat Region|Salamat]]
<li> [[Tandjilé Region|Tandjilé]]
<li> [[Wadi Fira Region|Wadi Fira]]
<li> [[N'Djamena]]
</ol></td></table>
==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Chad}}
[[Image:Chad sat.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Chad is divided into three distinct zones, from the Sudanese savanna in the south to the Sahara Desert in the north.]]
At {{km2 to mi2|1284000|spell=Commonwealth|precision=-3|wiki=yes|}}, Chad is the world's [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|21st-largest country]]. It is slightly smaller than [[Peru]] and slightly larger than [[South Africa]].<ref name="CIA">"Chad", ''The World Factbook''.</ref><ref>"Rank Order - Area"</ref> Chad is in north central Africa, lying between 8° and 24° north and between 14° and 24° east. Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital is {{km to mi|1600|spell=Commonwealth|precision=-1|abbr=yes}} from the nearest seaport.<ref name="EB">"Chad",''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref><ref name="UNHCHR">"Chad". United Nations Commission on Human Rights.</ref> Due to this distance from the sea and the country's largely [[desert]] climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".<ref>D. Botha, "S.H. Frankel"</ref>
[[Image:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg|left|thumb|[[Lake Chad]] in a 2001 satellite image. On the top, the changes from 1973 to 1997 are shown.]]
A heritage of the colonial era, Chad's borders do not coincide wholly with natural boundaries. The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north, east and south by mountain ranges. [[Lake Chad]], after which the country is named, is the remains of an immense lake that occupied {{km2 to mi2|330000|spell=Commonwealth|precision=-4|abbr=yes}} of the Chadian Basin 7,000 years ago.<ref name="EB"/> Although in the 21st century it covers only {{km2 to mi2|17806|spell=Commonwealth|precision=0|abbr=yes}}, and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations,<ref>EB, "Chad, Lake", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.<ref>A. Dinar, ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs'', 57</ref> The [[Emi Koussi]], a dormant volcano in the [[Tibesti Mountains]] that reaches 3,414 metres (13,435 ft) above sea level, is the highest point in Chad and the [[Sahara]].
Each year a tropical weather system known as the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|intertropical front]] crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a [[wet season]] that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.<ref>S. Decalo, ''Historical Dictionary of Chad'', 3</ref> Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations there are under {{convert|50|mm|in|0}}; in fact, [[Borkou]] in Chad is the most arid area of the Sahara. Vegetation throughout this belt is scarce; only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, the only ones to do so south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. The Sahara gives way to a [[Sahel]]ian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 mm to 600 mm (12–24 in) per year. In the Sahel a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly [[acacia]]s) gradually gives way to a [[savanna]] in Chad's [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]]ese zone to the south. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over {{convert|900|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="UNHCHR"/> The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the [[Chari River|Chari]], [[Logone River|Logone]] and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.<ref name="EB"/><ref>J. Chapelle, 10-16</ref>
==Economy and infrastructure==
{{main|Economy of Chad}}
[[Image:Maternity Ward Chad.jpg|thumb|right|A Chadian maternity ward. Although improving, Chad's infrastructure remains far less developed than that of its northern neighbours.]]
The United Nations' [[Human Development Index]] ranks Chad as the fifth poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) per capita was estimated as [[United States dollar|US$]]1,500 in 2005.<ref>The World's 10 Poorest Countries.</ref> Chad is part of the [[Bank of Central African States]] and the [[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC). Its currency is the [[Central African CFA franc|CFA franc]]. Years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.<ref name="CIA"/><ref name="BGN"/>
[[Image:Mao Women.jpg|thumb|left|Women in [[Mao, Chad|Mao]], where water is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.]]
Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.<ref name="CIA"/> The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10 percent of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of [[sorghum]] and [[millet]]. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and these with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered [[oasis|oases]] support only some dates and legumes.<ref name="Collelo"/> Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market and accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.<ref>S. Decalo, 11</ref> Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of [[Cotontchad]], a major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD). The [[parastatal]] is now expected to be privatised.<ref name="BGN"/>
[[ExxonMobil]] leads a consortium of [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] and [[Petronas]] that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the [[Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project|completion of a pipeline]] (financed in part by the [[World Bank]]) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.<ref name="BGN"/><ref name="OECD"/> On [[July 14]], [[2006]], the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.<ref>''World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction''. World Bank.</ref>
[[Image:Rebuilt bridge on Bragoto River.jpg|thumb|right|A bridge on the [[Bragoto River]]]]
Civil war crippled the development of [[transport in Chad|transport infrastructure]]; in 1987, Chad had only {{km to mi|30|spell=Commonwealth|precision=0|wiki=yes}} of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network<ref>"Chad Poverty Assessment". World Bank.</ref> to {{km to mi|550|spell=Commonwealth|precision=0|wiki=yes}} by 2004.<ref>Lettre d'information. Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad.</ref> Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of [[Douala]].<ref>A. Chowdhury & S. Erdenbileg, ''Geography Against Development''</ref> An [[N'Djamena International Airport|international airport]] serves the capital and provides regular direct flights to Paris and several African cities. The [[Communications in Chad|telecommunication system]] is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company [[SotelTchad]]. Only 14,000 fixed telephone lines serve all of Chad, one of the lowest telephone density rates in the world. Chad's energy sector has suffered from years of mismanagement by the parastatal [[Chad Water and Electric Society]] (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.<ref name="CCG">Chad Country Commercial Guide.</ref> Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.<ref name="EIA">"Chad and Cameroon". Energy Information Administration.</ref> Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.<ref name="EB"/><ref>"Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project". World Bank.</ref>
The country's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned [[TeleTchad]]. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations. Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.<ref>;"Chad (2006)". ''Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition''.</ref><ref name="EIA"/> While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.<ref>"Chad - 2006". Freedom Press Institute.</ref>
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Chad}}
2005 estimates place Chad's population at 10,146,000; 25.8% live in urban areas and 74.8% in rural ones.<ref>''World Population Prospects''.</ref> The country's population is young: an estimated 47.3% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 47.2 years.<ref name="CIA"/>
[[Image:Ouaddaian girl from Chad.jpg|thumb|175px|right|A [[Ouaddaï Region|Ouaddai]]an girl]]
Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is {{PD km2 to mi2|0.1|abbr=yes}} in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but {{PD km2 to mi2|52.4|abbr=yes}} in the [[Logone Occidental Region]]. In the capital, it is even higher.<ref name="UNHCHR"/> About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.<ref>"Chad Livelihood Profiles". U.S. Agency for International Development.</ref> Urban life is virtually restricted to the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are [[Sarh]], [[Moundou]], [[Abéché]] and [[Doba]], which are less urbanised but are growing rapidly and joining the capital as decisive factors in economic growth.<ref name="EB"/> Since 2003, 230,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. With the 172,000 Chadians<ref>"[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWFiles2007.nsf/FilesByRWDocUnidFilename/AMMF-76TJS4-Rapport_complet.pdf/$File/Rapport_complet.pdf {{lang|fr|Déplacés internes au Tchad}}]" (PDF), July 2007, UNHCR.</ref> displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.<ref>"Chad: Humanitarian Profile - 2006/2007"</ref>
[[Polygamy]] is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits [[polygamy]] unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.<ref>"Chad". ''Women of the World''.</ref> Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. [[Female genital cutting|Female genital mutilation]] is prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among [[Arab]]s, [[Hadjarai]], and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the [[Sara people|Sara]] (38%) and the [[Toubou]] (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.<ref name="HRP"/>
[[Image:Chadian delegation.jpg|thumb|left|A tribal delegation]]
Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups,<ref name="BGN"/> which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's peoples may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live. In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage. In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side-by-side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.<ref name="EB"/><ref name="Collelo"/> The nation's official business languages are [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, [[Chadian Arabic]] has become a ''lingua franca''.<ref name="Collelo"/>
[[Religion in Chad]] is diverse. The 1993 census found that 54% of Chadians were [[Islam in Chad|Muslim]], 20% [[Roman Catholicism in Chad|Roman Catholic]], 14% [[Protestantism|Protestant]], 10% [[Animism|animist]], and 3% atheist.<ref name="UNHCHR"/> None of these religious traditions is monolithic. Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam, though characterised by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances, is expressed in diverse ways. [[Christianity in Africa|Christianity]] arrived in Chad only with the French; as with Chadian Islam, it [[syncretism|syncretises]] aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.<ref name="Collelo"/> Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and [[Guéra Region|Guéra]].<ref name="EB"/> The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.<ref>"Chad", ''International Religious Freedom Report 2006''.</ref>
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Chad}}
{| class="prettytable" style="float: right;"
|+Holidays<ref name="CCG"/>
|-
! style="font-size: smaller;" | Date
! style="font-size: smaller;" | English Name
|-
| [[January 1]]
| [[New Year's Day]]
|-
| [[May 1]]
| [[Labour Day]]
|-
| [[May 25]]
| [[African Liberation Day]]
|-
| [[August 11]]
| [[Independence Day]]
|-
| [[November 1]]
| [[All Saints|All Saints' Day]]
|-
| [[November 28]]
| [[Republic Day]]
|-
| [[December 1]]
| [[Freedom and Democracy Day]]
|-
| [[December 25]]
| [[Christmas]]
|}
Due to its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government have actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the [[Chad National Museum]] and the [[Chad Cultural Centre]].<ref name="EB"/> Six [[public holidays in Chad|national holidays]] are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of [[Easter Monday]] and the Muslim holidays of [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Eid ul-Adha]], and [[Mawlid|Eid Milad Nnabi]].<ref name="CCG"/>
Regarding music, Chadians play instruments such as the ''kinde'', a type of bow harp; the ''[[kakaki]]'', a long tin horn; and the ''hu hu'', a stringed instrument that uses [[calabash]]es as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, [[balafon]]es, harps and ''kodjo'' drums; and the [[Kanembu people|Kanembu]] combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.<ref name="culture">"Chad: A Cultural Profile"</ref>
[[Image:Tailor in Chad.jpg|left|thumb|A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.]]
The music group [[Chari Jazz]] formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as [[African Melody]] and [[International Challal]] attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as [[Tibesti (group)|Tibesti]] have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on ''[[Sai music|sai]]'', a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.<ref name="culture"/><ref>L. Gondjé, "{{lang|fr|La musique recherche son identité}}"</ref>
Millet is the staple food throughout Chad. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known as ''alysh''; in the south, as ''biya''. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as ''salanga'' (sun-dried and lightly smoked ''[[Alestes]]'' and ''[[Hydrocynus]]'') or as ''banda'' (smoked larger fish).<ref>Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources</ref> ''Carcaje'' is a popular sweet drink extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink [[millet beer]], known as ''billi-billi'' when brewed from red millet and as ''coshate'' when from [[Proso millet|white millet]].<ref name="culture"/>
As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has suffered from an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are [[Joseph Brahim Seïd]], [[Baba Moustapha]], [[Antoine Bangui]] and [[Koulsy Lamko]]. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, [[Ahmat Taboye]], published his {{lang|fr|''Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne''}} to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.<ref name="culture"/><ref>N. Malo, "{{lang|fr|Littérature tchadienne}}"</ref><ref>D. Boyd-Buggs & J. Hope Scott, ''Camel Tracks'', 12, 132, 135</ref>
The development of a Chadian film industry has suffered from the devastations of civil war and from the lack of [[movie theater|cinemas]], of which there is only one in the whole country. The first Chadian [[feature film]], the [[docudrama]] ''[[Bye Bye Africa]]'', was made in 1999 by [[Mahamat Saleh Haroun]]. His later film ''[[Abouna]]'' was critically acclaimed, and his ''[[Daratt]]'' won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the [[63rd Venice International Film Festival]]. [[Issa Serge Coelo]] directed Chad's two other films, ''[[Daresalam]]'' and ''[[DP75: Tartina City]]''.<ref>N. Bambé, "Issa Serge Coelo"</ref><ref>N. Young, ''An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun''</ref><ref>BBC News, "Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice"</ref><ref>D. Alphonse, "Cinéma"</ref>
[[Association football|Football]] is Chad's most popular [[sport in Chad|sport]].<ref>{{cite web
| author=Staff | date=2007-07-02
| url=http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=cha/goalprogramme/index.html
| title=Chad | publisher=FIFA, Goal Programme | accessdate=2006-08-10 }}</ref> The country's [[Chad national football team|national team]] is much followed during international competitions<ref name="culture"/>, and Chadian footballers have played for French teams. [[Basketball]] and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers don traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust.<ref name="culture"/>
== See also ==
*[[List of Chad-related topics]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
<div class="references-small">
*{{fr icon}} Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003); "{{lang|fr|[http://www.cefod.org/Tchad%20et%20Culture/Tc214/art%20tchadien%205.htm Cinéma: un avenir plein d’espoir]}}", {{lang|fr|''Tchad et Culture''}} '''214'''.
*"[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/37992.htm Background Note: Chad]". September 2006. [[United States Department of State]].
*{{fr icon}} Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "[http://www.cefod.org/Tchad%20et%20Culture/Tc256/fespaco6.htm {{lang|fr|Issa Serge Coelo, cinéaste tchadien: ''On a encore du travail à faire''}}]", {{lang|fr|''Tchad et Culture''}} '''256'''.
*Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992); "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist", ''The South African Journal of Economics'' '''60''' (4): 246–255.
*Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); ''Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures''. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. ISBN 0-8654-3757-2
*"[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78726.htm Chad]". [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices|Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]] 2006, [[March 6]], [[2007]]. [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]], U.S. Department of State.
*"[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41595.htm Chad]". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, [[February 28]], [[2005]]. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
*"[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71293.htm Chad]". ''International Religious Freedom Report 2006''. [[September 15]], [[2006]]. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.
*"[http://web.amnesty.org/report2006/tcd-summary-eng Chad]". ''Amnesty International Report 2006''. [[Amnesty International]] Publications.
*"[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/25/62/38561813.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''African Economic Outlook 2007''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3
* "[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/cd.html Chad]". ''[[The World Factbook]]''. United States [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. [[May 15]] [[2007]].
*"[http://www.reproductiverights.org/pdf/chad.pdf Chad]" (PDF). ''Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives - Francophone Africa''. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000
*"[http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/pfs/inc_country_detail.cfm?country=6939&year=2006&pf Chad (2006)]". ''Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition''. Freedom House, Inc.
*"[http://www.freemedia.at/cms/ipi/freedom_detail.html?country=/KW0001/KW0004/KW0090/&year=2006 Chad - 2006]". ''World Press Freedom Review - 2006''. [[International Press Institute]].
*"[http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/48f4be12f6c55e5a802565cd005d4e0e?Opendocument Chad]". Human Rights Instruments. [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]]. [[December 12]], [[1997]].
*"Chad". ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. (2000). Chicago: [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]
*"Chad, Lake". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. (2000).
*"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/08/18/000112742_20040818161300/Rendered/PDF/298290Chad0IEM1ject0Brief10Final004.pdf Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project]" (PDF). [[September 24]], [[2002]]. [[World Bank]].
*"[http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/chad/chad_eng.pdf Chad: A Cultural Profile]" (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. [[Citizenship and Immigration Canada]]. ISBN 0-7727-9102-3
*"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/11/23/000104615_20041129133849/Rendered/PDF/PID010Concept0Stage.pdf Chad Urban Development Project]" (PDF). [[October 21]], [[2004]]. World Bank.
*"[http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/fullMaps_Af.nsf/luFullMap/387875A9DF1816A78525725F005D5397/$File/chad_final.pdf?OpenElement Chad: Humanitarian Profile - 2006/2007]" (PDF). [[January 8]], [[2007]]. [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]].
*"[http://www.fews.net/livelihoods/files/td/profiling.pdf Chad Livelihood Profiles]" (PDF). March 2005. [[United States Agency for International Development]].
*"[http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1997/10/21/000009265_3971229180948/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development]" (PDF). World Bank. [[October 21]], [[1997]].
*"[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2006&country=6939 Chad (2006)]". ''Country Report: 2006 Edition''. [[Freedom House]], Inc.
*"[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Chad_Cameroon/Full.html Chad and Cameroon]". Country Analysis Briefs. January 2007. [[Energy Information Administration]].
*"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4771383.stm Chad leader's victory confirmed]", [[BBC News]], [[May 14]], [[2006]].
*"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6367545.stm Chad may face genocide, UN warns]", BBC News, [[February 16]], [[2007]].
*{{fr icon}} Chapelle, Jean (1981); {{lang|fr|''Le Peuple Tchadien: ses racines et sa vie quotidienne''}}. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-169-4
*[[Anwarul Karim Chowdhury|Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim]] & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); ''[http://www0.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ohrlls/UNOHRLLS/new/UserFiles/File/Publications/LLDC/05-33151_geography_sm.pdf Geography Against Development: A Case for Landlocked Developing Countries]''. New York: United Nations. ISBN 92-1-104540-1
*Collelo, Thomas (1990); ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/tdtoc.html Chad: A Country Study]'', 2d ed. Washington: [[United States Government Printing Office|U.S. GPO]]. ISBN 0-1602-4770-5
*{{fr icon}} Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); {{lang|fr|''[http://www.cefod.org/Fichiers%20web/decentralisationtchad.doc La decentralisation au Tchad]''}}
*Decalo, Samuel (1987); ''Historical Dictionary of Chad'', 2 ed. Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-1937-6
*East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''. Routledge. ISBN 1-8574-3126-X
*Dinar, Ariel (1995); ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs''. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-8213-3321-6
*{{fr icon}}Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "[http://www.cefod.org/Tchad%20et%20Culture/Tc214/art%20tchadien%201.htm {{lang|fr|La musique recherche son identité}}]", {{lang|fr|''Tchad et Culture''}} '''214'''.
*[http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/engAFR200042001?OpenDocument&of=COUNTRIES\CHAD "Chad: the Habré Legacy"]. [[Amnesty International]]. [[October 16]], [[2001]].
*Lange, Dierk (1988). "[http://dierklange.com/pdf/fulltexts/UNESCO_III.pdf The Chad region as a crossroad]" (PDF), in ''UNESCO General History of Africa - Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', vol. 3: 436–460. [[University of California Press]]. ISBN 978-0-520-03914-8
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.deltcd.ec.europa.eu/fr/item2_info_docs/Lettre3_a4x10p.pdf {{lang|fr|Lettre d'information}}] (PDF). {{lang|fr|Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad}}. N. 3. September 2004.
*Macedo, Stephen (2006); ''Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law''. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3
*{{fr icon}} Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "[http://www.cefod.org/Tchad%20et%20Culture/Tc214/art%20tchadien%206.htm {{lang|fr|Littérature tchadienne : Jeune mais riche}}]", {{lang|fr|''Tchad et Culture''}} '''214'''.
*Manley, Andrew; "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4809420.stm Chad's vulnerable president]", BBC News, [[March 15]], [[2006]].
*"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/5328462.stm Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice]", BBC News, [[September 9]], [[2006]].
*{{fr icon}} Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005); "[http://132.203.59.36:81/Group/members_mpia/mpia-read/meetings&workshops/SRI%20LANKA/Papers/PMMA%20Papers/pr-pmma-208%20Tabo%20Ndang%20Symph-new.pdf {{lang|fr|A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad? Une Analyse d'Incidence à Partir des Données d'Enquête}}]" (PDF). ''4th PEP Research Network General Meeting''. Poverty and Economic Policy.
*[[Sam Nolutshungu|Nolutshungu, Sam C.]] (1995); ''Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad''. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1628-3
*[[Kenneth Pollack|Pollack, Kenneth M.]] (2002); ''Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991''. Lincoln: [[University of Nebraska Press]]. ISBN 0-8032-3733-2
*"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order - Area]". ''The World Factbook''. United States Central Intelligence Agency. [[May 10]], [[2007]].
*"[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023258.pdf Republic of Chad - Public Administration Country Profile]" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004.
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.primature-tchad.org/CIRCONSCRIPTIONS.pdf {{lang|fr|République du Tchad - Circonscriptions administratives}}]. [[Government of Chad]].
*Spera, Vincent ([[February 8]], [[2004]]); "[http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/site/imr-ri.nsf/en/gr126314e.html Chad Country Commercial Guide -- FY 2005]". [[United States Department of Commerce]].
*"[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/D7238E/D7238E03.htm Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries]". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. [[FAO]]. November 29 - December 1 1972.
*{{fr icon}} "[http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/countryreports/tchad/contents.html {{lang|fr|Tchad}}]". {{lang|fr|''L'évaluation de l'éducation pour tous à l'an 2000: Rapport des pays''}}. [[UNESCO]], Education for All.
*{{fr icon}} "[http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/africa/horn_of_africa/111_tchad_vers_le_retour_de_la_guerre.pdf {{lang|fr|Tchad: vers le retour de la guerre?}}]" (PDF). [[International Crisis Group]]. [[June 1]], [[2006]].
*{{fr icon}} Tetchiada, Sylvestre; "[http://ipsnews.net/fr/_note.asp?idnews=2920 {{lang|fr|Le pétrole au coeur des nouveaux soubresauts au Tchad}}]", [[Inter Press Service|IPS]], [[December 16]], [[2006]].
*Wolfe, Adam; "[http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&report_id=592&language_id=1 Instability on the March in Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic]", PINR, [[December 6]], [[2006]].
*World Bank ([[July 14]], [[2006]]). ''[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20994138~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction]''. [[News release|Press release]].
*''[http://esa.un.org/unpp/ World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database]''. 2006. United Nations Population Division.
*[http://mediaglobal.org/index.php/the-worlds-10-poorest-countries/ The World's 10 Poorest Countries]. Media for Global Development.
*"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4351076.stm Worst corruption offenders named]", BBC News, [[November 18]], [[2005]].
*Young, Neil (August 2002); ''[http://www.jigsawlounge.co.uk/film/harouninterview.html An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father")]''.
</div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Chad}}
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.primature-tchad.org/ Official government site]
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.presidencetchad.org/ Official presidency site]
*[http://www.chadembassy-usa.org/ Chad Embassy — Washington DC]
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[[ml:ഛാഡ്]]
[[mr:चाड]]
[[ms:Chad]]
[[nah:Chad]]
[[na:Chad]]
[[nl:Tsjaad]]
[[ja:チャド]]
[[no:Tsjad]]
[[nn:Tsjad]]
[[nov:Chad]]
[[oc:Chad]]
[[uz:Chad]]
[[ps:چاډ]]
[[pms:Ciad]]
[[nds:Tschad]]
[[pl:Czad]]
[[pt:Chade]]
[[crh:Çad]]
[[ro:Ciad]]
[[rm:Tschad]]
[[qu:Chad]]
[[ru:Чад (государство)]]
[[se:Chad]]
[[sa:चाड]]
[[sco:Chad]]
[[sq:Çadi]]
[[scn:Ciad]]
[[simple:Chad]]
[[sk:Čad]]
[[sl:Čad]]
[[sr:Чад]]
[[sh:Čad]]
[[fi:Tšad]]
[[sv:Tchad]]
[[tl:Chad]]
[[ta:சாட்]]
[[te:చాద్]]
[[th:ประเทศชาด]]
[[vi:Tchad]]
[[tg:Чад]]
[[tr:Çad]]
[[uk:Чад]]
[[ur:چاڈ]]
[[vec:Ciad]]
[[vo:Tjadän]]
[[wa:Tchad]]
[[wo:Cadd]]
[[ts:Chad]]
[[diq:Çad]]
[[bat-smg:Čads]]
[[zh:乍得]]