Chemical warfare 50073 223891360 2008-07-06T10:48:19Z Lost Boy 1698896 /* Protection against chemical warfare */ {{Chemical warfare vert}} '''Chemical warfare''' involves using the [[poison|toxic properties]] of [[chemical substance]]s to kill, injure or incapacitate an [[Enemy (military)|enemy]]. Chemical warfare is different from the use of [[conventional weapon]]s or [[nuclear weapon]]s because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any [[explosion|explosive]] force. The offensive use of living [[organism]]s (such as [[anthrax disease|anthrax]]) is considered to be [[biological warfare]] rather than chemical warfare; the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g., [[toxin]]s such as [[botulinum toxin]], [[ricin]], or [[saxitoxin]]) ''is'' considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]]. Under this Convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered as a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition, known as the General Purpose Criterion).<ref>{{cite journal | author=Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation | title= Chemical Weapons Convention States Parties and Signatories|url=http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/71827.htm }}</ref> About 70 different chemicals have been used or [[Stockpile (military)|stockpiled]] as Chemical Warfare (CW) agents during the 20th century. Chemical weapons are classified as [[weapon of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]] by the [[United Nations]], and their production and stockpiling was outlawed by the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] of 1993. Under the Convention, chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons, or may be used to manufacture such chemicals, are divided into three groups according to their purpose and treatment: * '''[[List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)|Schedule 1]]''' – Have few, if any, legitimate uses. These may only be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes (i.e. testing of chemical weapons sensors and protective clothing). Examples include [[nerve agents]], [[ricin]], [[lewisite]] and [[Sulfur mustard|mustard gas]]. Any production over 100 g must be notified to the [[OPCW]] and a country can have a stockpile of no more than one tonne of these chemicals. * '''[[List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)|Schedule 2]]''' – Have no large-scale industrial uses, but may have legitimate small-scale uses. Examples include [[dimethyl methylphosphonate]], a [[wiktionary:Precursor|precursor]] to [[sarin]] but which is also used as a [[flame retardant]] and [[Thiodiglycol]] which is a precursor chemical used in the manufacture of mustard gas but is also widely used as a solvent in [[ink]]s. * '''[[List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)|Schedule 3]]''' – Have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. Examples include [[phosgene]] and [[chloropicrin]]. Both have been used as chemical weapons but phosgene is an important precursor in the manufacture of plastics and chloropicrin is used as a fumigant. Any plant producing more than 30 tonnes per year must be notified to, and can be inspected by, the [[OPCW]]. ==Technology== {| style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; background:#edf3fe; text-align:center; font-size: 90%" align="center" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" |+'''Chemical warfare technology timeline''' |- style="background:#ccccff; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa;" ! style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa" | ! style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa" | '''''Agents''''' ! style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa" | '''''Dissemination''''' ! style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa" | '''''Protection''''' ! style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaa; border-bottom: 2px solid #aaaaaa" | '''''Detection''''' |- | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1900s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Chlorine<br />Chloropicrin<br />Phosgene<br />Mustard gas | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Wind dispersal | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Smell |- style="background:#DCDFFE" | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1910s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Lewisite | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Chemical shells | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Gas mask<br />Rosin oil clothing | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; |- | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1920s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Projectiles w/ central bursters | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | CC-2 clothing | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; |- style="background:#DCDFFE" | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1930s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | G-series nerve agents | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Aircraft bombs | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Blister agent detectors<br />Color change paper |- | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1940s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Missile warheads<br />Spray tanks | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Protective ointment (mustard)<br />Collective protection<br />Gas mask w/ Whetlerite | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; |- style="background:#DCDFFE" | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1950s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | |- | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1960s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | V-series nerve agents | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Aerodynamic | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Gas mask w/ water supply | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Nerve gas alarm |- style="background:#DCDFFE" | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1970s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | |- | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1980s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Binary munitions | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Improved gas masks<br />(protection, fit, comfort) | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | Laser detection |- style="background:#DCDFFE" | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | '''1990s''' | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | [[Novichok agent|Novichok nerve agents]] | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | &nbsp; | style="border-right: 1px solid #aaaaaa" |&nbsp; |- |} [[Image:Chemical agent protection.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Swedish Army]] soldier wearing a chemical agent [[protective suit]] (''C-vätskeskydd'') and his [[gas mask|protection mask]] (''skyddsmask 90'').]] Although crude chemical warfare has been employed in many parts of the world for thousands of years, "modern" chemical warfare began during [[World War I]] (see main article - [[Poison gas in World War I]]).<ref>{{citation | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | date = September 30, 2004 | url = http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ChemWar.html | title = Classes of Chemical Agents | format = {{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AClasses+of+Chemical+Agents&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref> Initially, only well-known commercially available chemicals and their variants were used. These included [[chlorine]] and [[phosgene]] gas. The methods of dispersing these agents during battle were relatively unrefined and inefficient. [[Germany]], the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield,<ref>{{citation | url = http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/1915/chlorgas.html | title = The Use of Poison Gas | date = 22 April, 1915 | first = Will | last = Irwin | journal = New York Tribune}}</ref> simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. Soon after, the [[France|French]] modified [[artillery]] [[munition]]s to contain phosgene – a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery.<ref>{{citation | first = Jeffrey Allan | last = Johnson | title = The Kaiser's Chemists: Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | year = 1990}}</ref> Since the development of modern chemical warfare in World War I, nations have pursued research and development on chemical weapons that falls into four major categories: new and more deadly agents; more efficient methods of delivering agents to the target (dissemination); more reliable means of defense against chemical weapons; and more sensitive and accurate means of detecting chemical agents. ===Chemical warfare agents=== {{seealso|List of chemical warfare agents}} A chemical used in warfare is called a ''chemical warfare agent'' (''CWA''). About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century and the 21st century. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid form. Liquid agents are generally designed to evaporate quickly; such liquids are said to be ''volatile'' or have a ''high [[vapor pressure]]''. Many chemical agents are made volatile so they can be dispersed over a large region quickly. The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective [[gas mask]]s useless. In July 1917, the Germans first employed [[mustard gas]], the first agent that circumvented gas masks. Mustard gas easily penetrates leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. Chemical warfare agents are divided into ''lethal'' and ''incapacitating'' categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the lethal dose causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The distinction between lethal and incapacitating substances is not fixed, but relies on a statistical average called the [[LD50|LD<sub>50</sub>]]. ====Persistency==== One way to classify chemical warfare agents is according to their ''persistency'', a measure of the length of time that a chemical agent remains effective after dissemination. Chemical agents are classified as ''persistent'' or ''nonpersistent''. Agents classified as ''nonpersistent'' lose effectiveness after only a few minutes or hours. Purely gaseous agents such as chlorine are nonpersistent, as are highly volatile agents such as [[sarin]] and most other nerve agents. Tactically, nonpersistent agents are very useful against targets that are to be taken over and controlled very quickly. Generally speaking, nonpersistent agents present only an inhalation hazard. By contrast, ''persistent'' agents tend to remain in the environment for as long as a week, complicating decontamination. Defense against persistent agents requires shielding for extended periods of time. Non-volatile liquid agents, such as blister agents and the oily [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] nerve agent, do not easily evaporate into a gas, and therefore present primarily a contact hazard. ====Classes==== Chemical warfare agents are organized into several categories according to the manner in which they affect the human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are as follows: {{Chemical warfare/CW table}} There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]], and thus are not controlled under the CWC treaties. These include: * [[Defoliant]]s that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic to human beings. Some batches of [[Agent Orange]], for instance, used by the United States in Vietnam, contained [[dioxin]]s as manufacturing impurities. Dioxins, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term [[cancer]] effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious birth deformities. * [[Incendiary]] or [[Explosive material|explosive]] chemicals (such as [[napalm]], extensively used by the United States in Vietnam, or [[dynamite]]) because their destructive effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct chemical action. * [[Virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]], or other organisms. Their use is classified as [[biological warfare]]. [[Toxin]]s produced by living organisms are considered chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered by the [[Biological Weapons Convention]]. ====Designations==== {{details |chemical weapon designation}} Most chemical weapons are assigned a one- to three-letter "[[NATO]] weapon designation" in addition to, or in place of, a common name. [[Binary chemical weapon|Binary munitions]], in which precursors for chemical warfare agents are automatically mixed in shell to produce the agent just prior to its use, are indicated by a "-2" following the agent's designation (for example, GB-2 and VX-2). Some examples are given below: {| style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; background:#edf3fe" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" |- ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Blood agents:''''' ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Vesicants:''''' |- | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[Cyanogen chloride]]: CK * [[Hydrogen cyanide]]: AC | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[Lewisite]]: L * [[Mustard gas|Sulfur mustard]]: H, HD, HS, HT |- ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Pulmonary agents:''''' ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Incapacitating agents:''''' |- | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[Phosgene]]: CG | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[3-quinuclidinyl benzilate|Quinuclidinyl benzilate]]: BZ |- ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Lachrymatory agents:''''' ! style="background:#ccccff; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;" | '''''Nerve agents:''''' |- | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[Pepper spray]]: OC * [[Tear gas]]: CN, CS, CR | style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa" | * [[Sarin]]: GB * [[VE (nerve agent)|VE]], [[VG (nerve agent)|VG]], [[VM (nerve agent)|VM]], [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] |} ===Delivery=== The most important factor in the effectiveness of chemical weapons is the efficiency of its delivery, or ''dissemination'', to a target. The most common techniques include ''munitions'' (such as bombs, projectiles, warheads) that allow dissemination at a distance and ''spray tanks'' which disseminate from low-flying aircraft. Developments in the techniques of filling and storage of munitions have also been important. Although there have been many advances in chemical weapon delivery since World War I, it is still difficult to achieve effective dispersion. The dissemination is highly dependent on atmospheric conditions because many chemical agents act in gaseous form. Thus, weather observations and forecasting are essential to optimize weapon delivery and reduce the risk of injuring friendly forces. ==Past Chemical Wars== ====Dispersion==== [[Image:Poison gas attack.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Dispersion of chlorine in World War I]] Dispersion is the simplest technique of delivering an agent to its target. It consists of placing the chemical agent upon or adjacent to a target immediately before dissemination, so that the material is most efficiently used. [[World War I]] saw the earliest implementation of this technique, when German forces at Ypres simply opened cylinders of chlorine and allowed the wind to carry the gas across enemy lines. While simple, this technique had numerous disadvantages. Moving large numbers of heavy gas cylinders to the front-line positions from where the gas would be released was a lengthy and difficult logistical task. Stockpiles of cylinders had to be stored at the front line, posing a great risk if hit by artillery shells. Gas delivery depended greatly on wind speed and direction. If the wind was fickle, as at [[Battle of Loos|Loos]], the gas could blow back, causing friendly casualties. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. This made the gas doubly effective, as, in addition to damaging the enemy physically, it also had a psychological effect on the intended victims. Also gas clouds had limited penetration, capable only of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Although it produced limited results in World War I, this technique shows how simple chemical weapon dissemination ''can'' be. Shortly after this "open canister" dissemination, French forces developed a technique for delivery of [[phosgene]] in a non-explosive [[artillery]] shell. This technique overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. First, gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making any target within reach of guns vulnerable. Second, gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless phosgene &mdash; there are numerous accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud [[high explosive]] or [[shrapnel]] shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted and took precautions. The major drawback of artillery delivery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. A British solution to the problem was the [[Livens Projector]]. This was effectively a large-bore mortar, dug into the ground that used the gas cylinders themselves as projectiles - firing a 14&nbsp;kg cylinder up to 1500 m. This combined the gas volume of cylinders with the range of artillery. Over the years, there were some refinements in this technique. In the 1950s and early 1960s, chemical artillery rockets and cluster bombs contained a multitude of submunitions, so that a large number of small clouds of the chemical agent would form directly on the target. ====Thermal dissemination==== [[Image:Mc-1 gas bomb.png|thumb|right|210px|An American-made [[MC-1]] gas bomb]] Thermal dissemination is the use of [[explosive]]s or [[pyrotechnic]]s to deliver chemical agents. This technique, developed in the 1920s, was a major improvement over earlier dispersal techniques, in that it allowed significant quantities of an agent to be disseminated over a considerable distance. Thermal dissemination remains the principal method of disseminating chemical agents today. Most thermal dissemination devices consist of a [[bomb]] or [[shell (projectile)|projectile shell]] that contains a chemical agent and a central "burster" charge; when the burster detonates, the agent is expelled laterally. Thermal dissemination devices, though common, are not particularly efficient. First, a percentage of the agent is lost by incineration in the initial blast and by being forced onto the ground. Second, the sizes of the particles vary greatly because explosive dissemination produces a mixture of liquid droplets of variable and difficult to control sizes. The efficacy of thermal detonation is greatly limited by the flammability of some agents. For flammable [[Particulate|aerosols]], the cloud is sometimes totally or partially ignited by the disseminating explosion in a phenomenon called ''flashing''. Explosively disseminated [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] will ignite roughly one third of the time. Despite a great deal of study, flashing is still not fully understood, and a solution to the problem would be a major technological advance. Despite the limitations of central bursters, most nations use this method in the early stages of chemical weapon development, in part because standard munitions can be adapted to carry the agents. [[Image:Albania chemweapcanister.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Soviet chemical weapons canisters from a stockpile in Albania]] ====Aerodynamic dissemination==== Aerodynamic dissemination is the non-explosive delivery of a chemical agent from an aircraft, allowing aerodynamic stress to disseminate the agent. This technique is the most recent major development in chemical agent dissemination, originating in the mid-1960s. This technique eliminates many of the limitations of thermal dissemination by eliminating the flashing effect and theoretically allowing precise control of particle size. In actuality, the altitude of dissemination, wind direction and velocity, and the direction and velocity of the aircraft greatly influence particle size. There are other drawbacks as well; ideal deployment requires precise knowledge of [[aerodynamics]] and [[fluid dynamics]], and because the agent must usually be dispersed within the [[boundary layer]] (less than 200&ndash;300&nbsp;ft above the ground), it puts pilots at risk. Significant research is still being applied toward this technique. For example, by modifying the properties of the liquid, its breakup when subjected to aerodynamic stress can be controlled and an idealized particle distribution achieved, even at supersonic speed. Additionally, advances in fluid dynamics, [[computer model]]ing, and [[weather forecasting]] allow an ideal direction, speed, and altitude to be calculated, such that warfare agent of a predetermined particle size can predictably and reliably hit a target. ===Protection against chemical warfare=== Ideal protection begins with nonproliferation treaties such as the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]], and detecting, very early, the ''signatures'' of someone building a chemical weapons capability. These include a wide range of intelligence disciplines, such as economic analysis of exports of dual-use chemicals and equipment, human intelligence ([[HUMINT]]) such as diplomatic, refugee, and agent reports; photography from satellites, aircraft and drones ([[IMINT]]); examination of captured equipment ([[TECHINT]]); communications intercepts ([[COMINT]]); and detection of chemical manufacturing and chemical agents themselves ([[Materials MASINT#Chemical Warfare and Improvised Chemical Devices|MASINT)]]. If all the preventive measures fail and there is a clear and present danger, then there is a need for detection of chemical attacks,<ref name=Davis2006>{{citation | author = Griffin Davis | title = CBRNE - Chemical Detection Equipment | journal = eMedicine | date = May 24, 2006 | url = http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/TOPIC924.HTM | accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref> collective protection,<ref name=FM3-11-4>{{citation | author = US Department of Defense | title = Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedure for NBC Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) Protection (FM 3-11.4 / MCWP 3-37.2 / NTTP 3-11.27 / AFTTP(I) 3-2.46) | date = 2 June 2003 | url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/army/fm/3-11-4/fm3-11-4.pdf | id = FM 3-11.4 | accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref><ref name=CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12> {{citation | author = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title = Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biologic, or Radiologic Attacks | date = 09/12/2002 | url = http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/441190 | accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref><ref name=FM3-11-34>{{citation | author = US Department of Defense | title = Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedure for NBC Defense of Theater Fixed Sites, Ports, and Airfields (FM 3-11.34/MCRP 3-37.5/NWP 3-11.23/AFTTP(I) 3-2.33) | date = 29 September 2000 | url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/policy/army/fm/3-11-34/fixedsites.pdf | accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref> and decontamination. Since industrial accidents can cause dangerous chemical releases (e.g., the [[Bhopal disaster]]), these activities are things that civilian, as well as military, organizations must be prepared to carry out. In civilian situations in developed countries, these are duties of [[HAZMAT]] organizations, which most commonly are part of fire departments. Detection has been referred to above, as a technical MASINT discipline; specific military procedures, which are usually the model for civilian procedures, depend on the equipment, expertise, and personnel available. When chemical agents are detected, an [[alarm]] needs to sound, with specific warnings over emergency broadcasts and the like. There may be a warning to expect an attack. If, for example, the captain of a US Navy ship believes there is a serious threat of chemical, biological, or radiological attack, the crew may be ordered to set '''Circle William''', which means closing all openings to outside air, running breathing air through filters, and possibly starting a system that continually washes down the exterior surfaces. Civilian authorities dealing with an attack or a toxic chemical accident will invoke the [[Incident Command System]], or local equivalent, to coordinate defensive measures.<ref name=FM3-11-34 /> Individual protection starts with a [[gas mask]] and, depending on the nature of the threat, through various levels of protective clothing up to a complete chemical-resistant suit with a self-contained air supply. The US military defines various levels of [[MOPP]] (mission-oriented protective posture) from mask to full chemical resistant suits; [[Hazmat suits]] are the civilian equivalent, but go farther to include a fully independent air supply, rather than the filters of a gas mask. Collective protection allows continued functioning of groups of people in buildings or shelters, the latter which may be fixed, mobile, or improvised. With ordinary buildings, this may be as basic as plastic sheeting and tape, although if the protection needs to be continued for any appreciable length of time, there will need to be an air supply, typically a scaled-up version of a gas mask.<ref name=CDC-MMWR-2002-09-12 /><ref name=FM3-11-34 /> Decontamination varies with the particular chemical agent used. Some ''nonpersistent'' agents, such as most pulmonary agents such as [[chlorine]] and [[phosgene]], [[blood gases]], and nonpersistent nerve gases (e.g., [[GB]]) will dissipate from open areas, although powerful exhaust fans may be needed to clear out building where they have accumulated. In some cases, it might be necessary to neutralize them chemically, as with [[ammonia]] as a neutralizer for [[hydrogen cyanide]] or [[chlorine]]. Riot control agents such as [[CS]] will dissipate in an open area, but things contaminated with CS powder need to be aired out, washed by people wearing protective gear, or safely discarded. [[Mass decontamination]] is a less common requirement for people than equipment, since people may be immediately affected and treatment is the action required. It is a requirement when people have been contaminated with persistent agents. Treatment and decontamination may need to be simultaneous, with the medical personnel protecting themselves so they can function.<ref name=Ciottone2007>{{citation | first1 = Gregory R | last1 = Ciottone | first2 = Jeffrey L | last2 = Arnold | title = CBRNE - Chemical Warfare Agents | journal = eMedicine | url = http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/TOPIC852.HTM | date = January 4, 2007 | accessdate = 2007-10-22}}</ref> There may need to be immediate intervention to prevent death, such as injection of atropine for nerve agents. Decontamination is especially important for people contaminated with persistent agents; many of the fatalities after the [[Air Raid on Bari|explosion of a WWII US ammunition ship carrying mustard gas]], in the harbor of Bari, Italy, after a German bombing on 2 December 1943, came when rescue workers, not knowing of the contamination, bundled cold, wet seamen in tight-fitting blankets. For decontaminating equipment and buildings exposed to persistent agents, such as [[blister agents]], [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] or other agents made persistent by mixing with a thickener, special equipment and materials might be needed. Some type of neutralizing agent will be needed; e.g. in the form of a spraying device with neutralizing agents such as Chlorine, Fichlor, strong alkaline solutions or enzymes . In other cases, a specific chemical decontaminant will be required.<ref name=FM3-11-34 /> ==Sociopolitical climate== {| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" align="right" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 2em; border: 1px solid #CC9; background-color: #F1F1DE" | <center><font color="#404010">'''''ARMIS BELLUM NON VENENIS GERITUR'''''</font></center><br /><center><font color="#404010">'''''"War is fought with weapons, not with poisons"'''''</font></center> |} While the study of chemicals and their military uses was widespread in [[China]], the use of toxic materials has historically been viewed with mixed emotions and some disdain in the West. One of the earliest reactions to the use of chemical agents was from [[Military history of the Roman Empire|Rome]]. Struggling to defend themselves from the [[Roman legion]]s, [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes poisoned the wells of their enemies, with Roman jurists having been recorded as declaring "armis bella non venenis geri", meaning "war is fought with [[weapon]]s, not with [[poison]]s." Before 1915 the use of poisonous chemicals in battle was typically the result of local initiative, and not the result of an active government chemical weapons program. There are many reports of the isolated use of chemical agents in individual battles or [[siege]]s, but there was no true tradition of their use outside of [[incendiary|incendiaries]] and smoke. Despite this tendency, there have been several attempts to initiate large-scale implementation of poison gas in several wars, but with the notable exception of World War I, the responsible authorities generally rejected the proposals for ethical reasons. For example, in 1854 Lyon Playfair, a [[United Kingdom|British]] chemist, proposed using a [[cyanide]]-filled [[artillery]] shell against enemy ships during the [[Crimean War]]. The British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy." ===Efforts to eradicate chemical weapons=== {{CW_Proliferation}} * [[August 27]] [[1874]]: The [[Brussels Declaration]] Concerning the Laws and Customs of War is signed, specifically forbidding the "employment of poison or poisoned weapons." * [[September 4]] [[1900]]: The [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Conference]], which includes a declaration banning the "use of projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases," enters into force. * [[February 6]] [[1922]]: After World War I, the [[Washington Arms Conference Treaty]] prohibited the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases. It was signed by the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, but France objected to other provisions in the treaty and it never went into effect. * [[September 7]] [[1929]]: The [[Geneva Protocol]] enters into force, prohibiting the use of poison gas. ===Chemical weapon proliferation=== {{main|Chemical weapon proliferation}} Despite numerous efforts to reduce or eliminate them, some nations continue to research and/or stockpile chemical warfare agents. To the right is a summary of the nations that have either declared weapon stockpiles or are suspected of secretly stockpiling or possessing CW research programs. Notable examples include [[China]]. According to the testimony of Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research [[Carl W. Ford]] before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, it is very probable that China has an advanced chemical warfare program, including research and development, production, and weaponization capabilities. Furthermore, there is considerable concern from the US regarding China's contact and sharing of chemical weapons expertise with other states of proliferation concern, including Syria and Iran. ==History== {{history of war}} ===Ancient to medieval times=== Chemical weapons have been used for millennia in the form of poisoned [[archery|arrows]], but evidence can be found for the existence of more advanced forms of chemical weapons in ancient and classical times. A good example of early chemical warfare was the late [[Stone Age]] (10 000 BC) hunter-gatherer societies in Southern [[Africa]], known as the [[Bushmen|San]]. They used poisoned arrows, tipping the wood, bone and stone tips of their arrows with poisons obtained from their natural environment. These poisons were mainly derived from [[scorpion]] or [[snake]] [[venom (poison)|venom]], but it is believed that some poisonous plants were also utilized. The arrow was fired into the target of choice, usually an [[antelope]] (the favourite being an eland), with the hunter then tracking the doomed animal until the poison caused its collapse. The earliest surviving references to toxic warfare are possibly those in the [[India]]n epics ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]].'' The [[Manusmriti]] book of laws also forbids use of poison weapons.<ref name=NCWC-p17>{{cite book | title = The New Chemical Weapons Convention - Implementation and Prospects | coauthors = Michael Bothe, Natalino Ronzitti, Allan Rosas | year = 1998 | publisher = Martinus Nijhoff Publishers | ISBN = 9041110992 | page = 17}}</ref> Dating from the 4th century BC, writings of the [[Mohist]] sect in [[China]] describe the use of bellows to pump smoke from burning balls of [[Mustard plant|mustard]] and other toxic vegetables into tunnels being dug by a besieging army. Even older Chinese writings dating back to about 1000 BC contain hundreds of recipes for the production of poisonous or irritating smokes for use in war along with numerous accounts of their use. From these accounts we know of the [[arsenic]]-containing "soul-hunting fog", and the use of finely divided lime dispersed into the air to suppress a peasant revolt in [[178|AD 178]]. The earliest recorded use of gas warfare in the West dates back to the 5th century BC, during the [[Peloponnesian War]] between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. Spartan forces besieging an Athenian city placed a lighted mixture of wood, pitch, and sulfur under the walls hoping that the noxious smoke would incapacitate the Athenians, so that they would not be able to resist the assault that followed. Sparta wasn't alone in its use of unconventional tactics during these wars: [[Solon]] of Athens is said to have used [[hellebore]] roots to poison the water in an aqueduct leading from the [[Pleistrus River]] around 590 BC during the siege of [[Cirrha]]. Chemical weapons were known and used in ancient and medieval China. Polish chronicler [[Jan Długosz]] mentions usage of poisonous gas by the Mongol army in 1241 in the [[Battle of Legnica]]. ===Rediscovery=== During the [[Renaissance]], people again considered using chemical warfare. One of the earliest such references is from [[Leonardo da Vinci]], who proposed a powder of sulfide of arsenic and [[verdigris]] in the 15th century: :''throw poison in the form of powder upon galleys. Chalk, fine sulfide of arsenic, and powdered verdegris may be thrown among enemy ships by means of small [[mangonel]]s, and all those who, as they breathe, inhale the powder into their lungs will become asphyxiated.'' It is unknown whether this powder was ever actually used. In the 17th century during [[siege]]s, armies attempted to start fires by launching [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] [[artillery|shells]] filled with [[sulfur|sulphur]], [[tallow]], [[rosin]], [[turpentine]], [[Potassium nitrate|saltpeter]], and/or [[antimony]]. Even when fires were not started, the resulting smoke and fumes provided a considerable distraction. Although their primary function was never abandoned, a variety of fills for shells were developed to maximize the effects of the smoke. In 1672, during his siege of the city of [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], [[Christoph Bernhard van Galen]], the [[Bishop of Münster]], employed several different explosive and incendiary devices, some of which had a fill that included [[belladonna]], intended to produce toxic fumes. Just three years later, [[August 27]] [[1675]], the [[France|French]] and the [[Germany|Germans]] concluded the [[Strasbourg Agreement (1675)|Strasbourg Agreement]], which included an article banning the use of "perfidious and odious" toxic devices. In 1854, [[Lyon Playfair]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] chemist, proposed a [[Blood agent|cacodyl cyanide]] artillery shell for use against enemy ships as way to solve the stalemate during the siege of [[Sevastopol]]. The proposal was backed by Admiral [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Thomas Cochrane]] of the [[Royal Navy]]. It was considered by the Prime Minister, [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], but the British Ordnance Department rejected the proposal as "as bad a mode of warfare as poisoning the wells of the enemy." Playfair’s response was used to justify chemical warfare into the next century: :''There was no sense in this objection. It is considered a legitimate mode of warfare to fill shells with molten metal which scatters among the enemy, and produced the most frightful modes of death. Why a poisonous vapor which would kill men without suffering is to be considered illegitimate warfare is incomprehensible. War is destruction, and the more destructive it can be made with the least suffering the sooner will be ended that barbarous method of protecting national rights. No doubt in time chemistry will be used to lessen the suffering of combatants, and even of criminals condemned to death.'' Later, during the [[American Civil War]], [[New York]] school teacher John Doughty proposed the offensive use of [[chlorine]] gas, delivered by filling a 10 [[inch]] (254 millimeter) artillery shell with 2 to 3 [[quart]]s (2 to 3 [[liter]]s) of liquid chlorine, which could produce many cubic feet (a few cubic meters) of chlorine gas. Doughty’s plan was apparently never acted on, as it was probably presented to Brigadier General [[James Wolfe Ripley]], Chief of Ordnance, who was described as being congenitally immune to new ideas. A general concern over the use of poison gas manifested itself in 1899 at the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Conference]] with a proposal prohibiting shells filled with asphyxiating gas. The proposal was passed, despite a single dissenting vote from the United States. The American representative, Navy Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], justified voting against the measure on the grounds that "the inventiveness of Americans should not be restricted in the development of new weapons." ===World War I=== [[Image:mustard gas burns.jpg|thumb|200px|A soldier with mustard gas burns, ca. 1917–1918.]] {{main|Poison gas in World War I}} The Hague Declaration of 1899 and the Hague Convention of 1907 forbade the use of "poison or poisonous weapons" in warfare, yet more than 124,000 tons of gas were produced by the end of World War I. The [[French people|French]] were the first to use chemical weapons during the First World War, using tear gas. The German's first use of chemical weapons were shells containing xylyl bromide that were fired at the Russians near the town of [[Bolimów]], Poland in January 1915.<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/F/firstworldwar/cont_harbinger_3.html "The First World War"] (a Channel 4 documentary based on the book by Hew Strachan)</ref> The first full-scale deployment of chemical warfare agents was during [[Use of poison gas in World War I|World War I]], originating in the [[Second Battle of Ypres]], [[April 22]] [[1915]], when the Germans attacked French, [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Algeria]]n troops with [[chlorine gas]]. Deaths were light, though casualties relatively heavy. A total 50,965&nbsp;tons of pulmonary, lachrymatory, and vesicant agents were deployed by both sides of the conflict, including [[chlorine]], [[phosgene]] and [[mustard gas]]. Official figures declare about 1,176,500 non-fatal casualties and 85,000 fatalities directly caused by chemical warfare agents during the course of the war.<ref>{{citation | last =Heller | first = Charles E. | date = September 1984 | url = http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Heller/HELLER.asp | title = Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917–1918 | publisher = US Army Command and General Staff College }}</ref> To this day unexploded WWI-era chemical ammunition is still frequently uncovered when the ground is dug in former battle or depot areas and continues to pose a threat to the civilian population in [[Belgium]] and France and less commonly in other countries. The French and Belgian governments have had to launch special programs for treating discovered ammunition.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} After the war, most of the unused German chemical warfare agents were dumped into the [[Baltic Sea]], a common disposal method among all the participants in several bodies of water. Over time, the salt water causes the shell casings to corrode, and [[mustard gas]] occasionally leaks from these containers and washes onto shore as a wax-like solid resembling [[ambergris]]. Even in this solidified form, the agent is active enough to cause severe contact burns to anybody coming into contact with it.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} ===Interwar years=== [[Image:AOSpare-Dressing the Wounded during a Gas Attack 1918.jpg|thumb|''Dressing the Wounded during a Gas Attack'', a 1918 painting by the British [[war artist]] [[Austin Osman Spare]].]] After World War I chemical agents were occasionally used to subdue populations and suppress rebellion. Following the defeat of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1917, the Ottoman government collapsed completely, and the former empire was divided amongst the victorious powers in the [[Treaty of Sèvres]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]] occupied [[Mesopotamia]] (present-day [[Iraq]]) and established a [[colonialism|colonial government]]. In 1920, the [[Arab]] and [[Kurd]]ish people of [[Mesopotamia]] [[Iraqi revolt against the British|revolted]] against the British occupation, which cost the British dearly. As the Mesopotamian resistance gained strength, the British resorted to increasingly repressive measures. Much speculation was made about aerial bombardment of major cities with [[gas in Mesopotamia]], with [[Winston Churchill]], then-Secretary of State at the [[British War Office]], arguing in favor of it.<ref name="libcom>[http://libcom.org/history/1904-2003-history-of-iraq], Libcom 1904-2003: History of Iraq</ref> In the 1920s generals reported that poison had never won a battle. The soldiers said they hated it and hated the gas masks. Only the chemists spoke out to say it was a good weapon. In 1925, sixteen of the world's major nations signed the [[Geneva Protocol]], thereby pledging never to use gas in warfare again. Notably, in the [[United States]], the Protocol languished in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] until 1975, when it was finally ratified. The Soviet Union also employed poison gas on its own people in 1921 during peasant [[Tambov Rebellion]]. An order signed by military commanders [[Tukhachevsky]] and [[Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko]] stipulated: ''"The forests where the bandits are hiding are to be cleared by the use of poison gas. This must be carefully calculated, so that the layer of gas penetrates the forests and kills everyone hiding there."''<ref name="black book"> Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, [[Stéphane Courtois]], ''[[The Black Book of Communism]]: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', [[Harvard University Press]], 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7 </ref> During the [[Rif War (1920)|Rif War]] in [[Spanish Morocco]] in 1921–1927, combined [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] forces dropped mustard gas bombs in an attempt to put down the [[Berber people|Berber]] rebellion. (''See also: [[Chemical weapons in the Rif War]]'') In 1935 [[fascism|Fascist]] [[Italy]] used [[mustard gas]] during the invasion of [[Ethiopia]] in the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]. Ignoring the [[Geneva Protocol]], which it signed seven years earlier, the Italian military dropped mustard gas in bombs, sprayed it from airplanes, and spread it in powdered form on the ground. 15,000 chemical casualties were reported, mostly from mustard gas. ===World War II=== [[Image:Sarin.svg|right|frame|The chemical structure of [[Sarin]] [[nerve gas]], developed by [[Germany]] in 1938.]] Despite article 171 of the [[Versailles Peace Treaty]] and a resolution adopted against Japan by the [[League of nations]] on 14 May 1938, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] frequently used chemical weapons. Because of fear of retaliation however, those weapons were never used against Westerners but against other Asians judged "inferior" by the imperial propaganda. According to historians [[Yoshiaki Yoshimi]] and Seiya Matsuno, the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by [[emperor Showa]] himself, transmitted by the [[Imperial General Headquarters|chief of staff of the army]]. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the [[battle of Wuhan]] from August to October 1938. <ref>Y. Yoshimi and S. Matsuno, ''Dokugasusen Kankei Shiryô II, Kaisetsu, Jugonen Sensô Gokuhi Shiryoshu'', 1997, p.27-29</ref> They were also profusely used during the [[Changde chemical weapon attack|invasion of Changde]]. Those orders were transmitted either by prince [[Prince Kan'in|Kotohito Kan'in]] or general [[Hajime Sugiyama]] <ref>Yoshimi and Matsuno, idem, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p.360-364</ref>. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] used [[mustard gas]] and the recently-developed [[blister agent]] [[Lewisite]] against [[China|Chinese]] troops and guerrillas. Experiments involving chemical weapons were conducted on live prisoners ([[Unit 731]] and [[Unit 516]]). The Japanese also carried chemical weapons as they swept through Southeast Asia towards Australia. Some of these items were captured and analyzed by the Allies. Greatly concerned, Australia covertly imported 1,000,000 chemical weapons from the United Kingdom from 1942 onwards<ref name=Au>{{citation | url =http://www.mustardgas.org/ | title = Chemical Warfare in Australia | author = Australian Military History Publications (Army History Unit) }}</ref>[http://www.mustardgas.org][http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/deadly-chemicals-hidden-in-war-cache/2008/01/19/1200620272396.html] [http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,23458220-5015730,00.html][http://penrithpress.com.au/article/2008/02/19/3732_news.html][http://bluemountains.yourguide.com.au/news/local/general/author-lifts-lid-on-chemical-wartime-history/1191452.html].As of 2005, 60 years after the end of the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|war]], canisters that were abandoned by Japan in their hasty retreat are still being dug up on construction sites, causing injuries and allegedly even deaths.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Shortly after the end of [[World War I]], Germany's General Staff enthusiastically pursued a recapture of their preeminent position in chemical warfare. In 1923, [[Hans von Seeckt]] pointed the way, by suggesting that German poison gas research move in the direction of delivery by aircraft in support of mobile warfare. Also in 1923, at the behest of the German army, poison gas expert Dr. Hugo Stolzenberg negotiated with the USSR to built a huge chemical weapons plant at Trotsk, on the Volga river. Collaboration between Germany and the USSR in poison gas continued on and off through the 1920s. In 1924, German officers debated the use of poison gas versus non-lethal chemical weapons against civilians. Even before [[World War II]], chemical warfare was revolutionized by [[Nazi Germany]]'s discovery of the [[nerve agent]]s [[Tabun (nerve gas)|tabun]] (in 1937) and [[sarin]] (in 1938) by [[Gerhard Schrader]], a chemist of [[IG Farben]]. IG Farben was Germany's premier poison gas manufacturer during [[World War I]], so the weaponization of these agents can not be considered accidental.<ref>Corum, James S., ''The Roots of Blitzkrieg'', University Press of Kansas, USA, 1992, pp.106-107.</ref> Both were turned over to the German Army Weapons Office prior to the outbreak of the war. The nerve agent [[soman]] was later discovered by Nobel Prize laureate Richard Kuhn and his collaborator Konrad Henkel at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg in spring of 1944.<ref name=Schmaltz2005> {{citation | first = Florian | last = Schmaltz | title = Kampfstoff-Forschung im Nationalsozialismus Zur Kooperation von Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instituten, Militär und Industrie" | publisher = Wallstein Verlag | year = 2005 }}</ref><ref name=Schmaltz2006> {{citation | first = Florian | last = Schmaltz | title = Neurosciences and Research on Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction in Nazi Germany | journal = Journal of the History of the Neurosciences | year = 2006 | pages = 186–209 | doi = 10.1080/09647040600658229 | volume = 15}}</ref> The Nazis developed and manufactured large quantities of several agents, but chemical warfare was not extensively used by either side. Chemical troops were set up (in Germany since 1934) and delivery technology was actively developed. Recovered Nazi documents suggest that [[Abwehr|German intelligence]] incorrectly thought that the [[Allies#World War II|Allies]] also knew of these compounds, interpreting their lack of mention in the Allies' scientific journals as evidence that information about them was being suppressed. Germany ultimately decided not to use the new nerve agents, fearing a potentially devastating Allied retaliatory nerve agent deployment. {{cite journal | author=Fisk, Robert | title=Poison gas from Germany | journal= Independent| year=December 30, 2000 | volume= | issue= | pages= | url=http://www.zmag.org/hussein.htm }} [[William L. Shirer]], in ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'', writes that the British high command considered the use of chemical weapons as a last-ditch defensive measure in the event of a Nazi invasion of Britain. <!--Is this confirmed anywhere else? I don't have the physical book with me, but see Churchill's history of the second world war. He was quite explicit about proposing use of mustard against invasion beaches--> On the night of [[December 2]], [[1943]], German [[Ju 88]] bombers [[Air Raid on Bari|attacked the port]] of [[Bari]] in Southern [[Italy]], sinking several American ships — among them {{SS|John Harvey}}, which was carrying mustard gas intended for use in retaliation by the Allies if German forces initiated gas warfare. The presence of the gas was highly classified, and authorities ashore had no knowledge of it — which increased the number of fatalities, since physicians, who had no idea that they were dealing with the effects of mustard gas, prescribed treatment improper for those suffering from exposure and immersion. The whole affair was kept secret at the time and for many years after the war (in the opinion of some, there was a deliberate and systematic cover-up). According to the U.S. military account, "Sixty-nine deaths were attributed in whole or in part to the mustard gas, most of them American merchant seamen"<ref name=NHC-FAQ-104-4>{{citation | url =http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq104-4.htm | title = Naval Armed Guard Service: Tragedy at Bari, Italy on 2 December 1943 | author = US Naval Historical Center}}</ref> out of 628 mustard gas military casualties.<ref name=Niderost>{{citation | url = http://www.historynet.com/wwii/blluftwaffeadriatic/ | title = World War II: German Raid on Bari | first1 = Eric | last1 = Niderost | publisher = HistoryNet.com | format = {{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AWorld+War+II%3A+German+Raid+on+Bari&as_publication=&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref> The large number of civilian casualties among the Italian population were not recorded. Part of the confusion and controversy derives from the fact that the German attack was highly destructive and lethal in itself, also apart from the accidental additional effects of the gas (it was nicknamed "The Little Pearl Harbor"), and attribution of the causes of death between the gas and other causes is far from easy.<ref name=Infield>{{cite book | title = Disaster at Bari | author = Infield, Glenn B. Infield }}</ref><ref name=Reminick>{{cite book | title = Nightmare in Bari: The World War II Liberty Ship Poison Gas Disaster and Coverup | author = Reminick, Gerald }}</ref> [[Rick Atkinson]], in his book ''The Day of Battle,'' describes the intelligence that prompted Allied leaders to deploy mustard gas to Italy. This included Italian intelligence that [[Adolf Hitler]] had threatened to use gas against Italy if she changed sides, and [[prisoner of war]] interrogations suggesting that preparations were being made to use a "new, egregiously potent gas" if the war turned decisively against Germany. Atkinson concludes that "No commander in 1943 could be cavalier about a manifest threat by Germany to use gas." The [[Grand Mufti]] of [[Jerusalem]], [[Amin al-Husayni]], the senior Islamic religious authority of the [[Palestinian]] Arabs and ally of [[Adolf Hitler]] was accused of sponsoring an unsuccessful chemical warfare assault on the Jewish community in [[Tel-Aviv]] during 1944 by The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies. Allegations suggest that five parachutists were supplied with maps of [[Tel Aviv]], canisters of a German–manufactured "fine white powder," and instructions from the Mufti to dump chemicals into the Tel Aviv [[Water well|water system]]. District police commander Fayiz Bey Idrissi later recalled, "The laboratory report stated that each container held enough poison to kill 25,000 people, and there were at least ten containers."<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.wymaninstitute.org/articles/2003-03-chemical.php | title = Arab Chemical Warfare Against Jews--in 1944 | first = Benyamin | last = Korn | journal = The David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies }}</ref> ===Cold War=== After World War II, the [[Allies]] recovered German artillery shells containing the three German nerve agents of the day ([[Tabun (nerve gas)|tabun]], [[sarin]], and [[soman]]), prompting further research into [[nerve agent]]s by all of the former Allies. Although the threat of global [[thermonuclear]] war was foremost in the minds of most during the [[Cold War]], both the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical and biological weapons. ====Developments by the Western governments==== In 1952, researchers in [[Porton Down]], [[England]], invented the [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] nerve agent but soon abandoned the project. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the [[United States]] in exchange for information on [[thermonuclear weapon]]s; by 1961 the U.S. was producing large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This research produced at least three more agents; the four agents ([[VE (nerve agent)|VE]], [[VG (nerve agent)|VG]], [[VM (nerve agent)|VM]], VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents. Also in 1952 the [[U.S. Army]] patented a process for the "Preparation of Toxic [[Ricin]]", publishing a method of producing this powerful [[toxin]]. During the 1960s, the U.S. explored the use of anticholinergic deleriant [[incapacitating agent]]s. One of these agents, assigned the weapon designation [[3-quinuclidinyl benzilate|BZ]], was allegedly used experimentally in the [[Vietnam War]]. These allegations inspired the 1990 fictional film ''[[Jacob's Ladder (movie)|Jacob's Ladder]]''. Between 1967 and 1968, the U.S. decided to dispose of obsolete chemical weapons in an operation called [[Operation CHASE]], which stood for "cut holes and sink 'em." Several shiploads of chemical and conventional weapons were put aboard old Liberty ships and sunk at sea. In 1969, 23 U.S. servicemen and one U.S. civilian stationed in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]], [[Japan]], were exposed to low levels of the nerve agent sarin while repainting the depots' buildings. The weapons had been kept secret from [[Japan]], sparking a furor in that country and an international incident. These munitions were moved in 1971 to [[Johnston Atoll]] under [[Operation Red Hat]]. [[Image:Gorbachev Bush 19900601.jpg|thumb|right|250px|George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev signing the bilateral treaty on [[1990]]-[[06-01]]]] A [[United Nations|UN]] [[working group]] began work on chemical disarmament in 1980. On [[April 4]], [[1984]], U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] called for an international ban on chemical weapons. U.S. President [[George H.W. Bush]] and [[Soviet Union]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] signed a bilateral [[treaty]] on [[June 1]], [[1990]], to end chemical weapon production and start destroying each of their nation's stockpiles. The multilateral [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] (CWC) was signed in 1993 and entered into force (EIF) in 1997. In December, 2001, the United States Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, NIOSH, National Personal Protective Technology Laboratory (NPPTL), along with the U.S. Army Research, Development Engineering Command Edgewood Chemical/Biological Center (ECBC), and the U.S. Department of Commerce National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) published the first of six technical performance standards and test procedures designed to evaluate and certify respirators intended for use by civilian emergency responders to a chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapon release, detonation, or terrorism incident. To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification policy, next generation emergency response respirator performance requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying escape respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER) and loose or tight fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN PAPR). Current NIOSH-approved/certified CBRN respirator concept standards and test procedures can be found at the webpage: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/standardsdev/cbrn/ ====United States Senate Report==== A 1994 United States Senate Report, entitled "Is military research hazardous to veterans health? Lessons spanning a half century,"<ref name=Rockefeller>{{citation |url = http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/rockrep.cfm | id= 103d Congress, 2d Session - COMMITTEE PRINT - S. Prt. 103-97 | title = Is Military Research Hazardous to Veterans' Health? Lessons spanning half a century | author = Staff, Committee on Veterans' Affairs, US Senate | date = December 8, 1994 }}</ref> detailed the [[United States Department of Defense]]'s practice of experimenting on animal and human subjects, often without their knowledge or consent. This included: * Approximately 60,000 [US] military personnel were used as human subjects in the 1940s to test the chemical agents [[mustard gas]] and [[lewisite]]. "Mustard" section,<ref name=Rockefeller /> * Between the 1950s through the 1970s, at least 2,200 military personnel were subjected to various biological agents, referred to as [[Operation Whitecoat]]. Unlike most of the studies discussed in this report, Operation Whitecoat was truly voluntary. "Seventh" section,<ref name=Rockefeller /> * Between 1951 and 1969, [[Dugway Proving Ground]] was the site of testing for various chemical and biological agents, including an open air aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed, on neighboring farms, [[Dugway sheep incident|approximately 6,400 sheep]] by an unspecified [[nerve agent]]."Dugway" section,<ref name=Rockefeller /> ====Developments by the Soviet government==== Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little information was available about the direction and progress of the Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the [[Cold War (1962-1991)#The end of the Cold War|fall of the Soviet Union]], [[Russia]]n chemist [[Vil Mirzayanov]] published articles revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia. In 1993, Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he had worked for 26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S. scientists on his behalf, Mirzayanov was released.<ref name="KGB"> [[Yevgenia Albats]] and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. ''The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future'', 1994. ISBN 0-374-18104-7 (see pages 325–328)</ref> Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents, which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Several highly toxic agents were developed during this period; the only unclassified information regarding these agents is that they are known in the open literature only as "Foliant" agents (named after the program under which they were developed) and by various code designations, such as A-230 and A-232.<ref name="Fedorov1994"> {{citation | url = http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/russia/cbw/jptac008_l94001.htm | title = Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics] | first = Lev | last = Fedorov | publisher = Center of Ecological Policy of Russia | date = 27 July 1994}}</ref> According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed agents that were safer to handle, leading to the development of the [[binary weapon]]s, in which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves, this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also made it possible to increase the [[shelf life]] of the agents a great deal. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and are designated as "[[Novichok]]" agents (after the Russian word for "newcomer").<ref name="Birstein"> {{citation | first = Vadim J. | last = Birstein | title = The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science | publisher = Westview Press | year = 2004 | isbn =0-813-34280-5 }}</ref> Together with Lev Fedorov, he told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper [[Moscow News]].<ref name=Federov1992>{{citation | first1 = Lev| last1 = Federov | first2 = Vil | last2 = Mirzayanov | title = A Poisoned Policy | journal = Moscow News | issue = weekly No. 39 | year = 1992}}</ref> ====Iran-Iraq War==== [[Image:Chemical weapon2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Victims of [[Iraq]]'s poison gas attack in civil area during [[Iran-Iraq war]]]][[Chemical weapons]] which had been delivered{{Fact|date=February 2008}} to [[Saddam Hussein]] killed and injured numerous [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Iraqis]]. According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing [[chemical weapon]]s was obtained from firms in many countries, including the [[United States]], [[West Germany]], [[the Netherlands]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] and [[China]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Lafayette, Lev | title=Who armed Saddam? | journal=World History Archives | year=July 26, 2002 | url= http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/040.html}}</ref> The [[Iran-Iraq War]] began in 1980 when [[Iraq]] attacked [[Iran]]. Early in the conflict, Iraq began to employ mustard gas and tabun delivered by bombs dropped from airplanes; approximately 5% of all Iranian casualties are directly attributable to the use of these agents.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} About 100,000 Iranian soldiers were victims of [[Iraq]]'s chemical attacks. Many were hit by mustard gas. The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately, according to official reports. Of the 80,000 survivors, some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/mideaststories/me1209.html | title = In Iran, grim reminders of Saddam's arsenal | date = October 27, 2002 | first = Farnaz | last = Fassihi | journal = New Jersey Star Ledger }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url = http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=39470 | title = It's like a knife stabbing into me | first = Paul | last = Hughes | journal = The Star (South Africa) | unused_data = |January 21, 2003}}</ref><ref>{{citation | url = http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm | date =February 13, 2003 | journal = New York Times | title = Iraq Chemical Arms Condemned, but West Once Looked the Other Way | first = Elaine | last = Sciolino}}</ref> Iraq also targeted Iranian civilians with chemical weapons. Many thousands were killed in attacks on populations in villages and towns, as well as front-line hospitals. Many still suffer from the severe effects. Despite the removal of Saddam and his regime by Coalition forces, there is deep resentment and anger in Iran that it was Western companies based in [[the Netherlands]], West [[Germany]], [[France]], and the U.S. that helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal in the first place, and that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of chemical weapons throughout the war.<ref name=Timmerman1991>{{cite book | author=Timmerman, Kenneth R. | title=Death Lobby: How the West Armed Iraq | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year= 1991| | ISBN = 0-395-59305-0}}</ref> Shortly before war ended in 1988, the Iraqi [[Kurd]]ish village of [[Halabja]] was exposed to multiple chemical agents, killing about 5,000 of the town's 50,000 residents. After the incident, traces of mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun and VX were discovered. While it appears that Iraqi government forces are to blame, some debate continues over the question of whether Iraq was really the responsible party, and whether this was a deliberate or accidental act. (see ''[[Halabja poison gas attack]]'') During the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] in 1991, Coalition forces began a ground war in Iraq. Despite the fact that they did possess chemical weapons, Iraq did not use any chemical agents against coalition forces. The commander of the Allied Forces, [[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf]], suggested this may have been due to Iraqi fear of retaliation with [[nuclear weapon]]s.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} ====Falklands War==== Technically, the employment of [[tear gas]] by [[Argentina|Argentine]] forces during the [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] constitutes chemical warfare. However, the tear gas grenades were employed as nonlethal weapons to avoid British casualties. (In the hope that Britain would more easily accept the loss of territory in the conflict) The barrack buildings the weapons were used on proved to be deserted in any case. ===Terrorism=== For many [[terrorism|terrorist]] organizations, chemical weapons might be considered an ideal choice for a mode of attack, if they are available: they are cheap, relatively accessible, and easy to transport. A skilled chemist can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are available. <!--this is principally about BW. Some political commentators dispute the practicality of chemical and biological weapons as tools of terrorism, however, stating that the effective use of such weapons is much more difficult than the use of conventional explosives, and that they are more useful in the fear that they generate.<ref name=Germs>{{citation | url = http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/politicsphilosophyandsociety/0,,577053,00.html | title = Weapons of mass hysteria: Book review of ''Germs: | first = Simon | last = Wessely reads Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War and says that we should forget germs and gas - the most deadly infection is terror Saturday October 20, 2001 The Guardian Germs: Biological Weapons and America's Secret War Judith Miller, Stephen Engelberg and William Broad 352pp, Simon & Schuster, }}</ref> --> The earliest successful use of chemical agents in a non-combat setting was in 1946, motivated by a desire to obtain revenge on [[Germany|Germans]] for [[the Holocaust]]. Three members of a [[Jew]]ish group calling themselves [[Dahm Y'Israel Nokeam]] ("Avenging Israel's Blood") hid in a bakery in the Stalag 13 prison camp near [[Nuremberg, Germany]], where several thousand [[SS|SS troops]] were being detained. The three applied an arsenic-containing mixture to loaves of bread, sickening more than 2,000 prisoners, of whom more than 200 required hospitalization. In July 1974, a group calling themselves the [[Aliens of America]] successfully firebombed the houses of a judge, two police commissioners, and one of the commissioner’s cars, burned down two apartment buildings, and bombed the [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] Terminal at [[Los Angeles International Airport]], killing three people and injuring eight. The organization, which turned out to be a single resident alien named [[Muharem Kurbegovic]], claimed to have developed and possessed a supply of sarin, as well as 4 unique nerve agents named AA1, AA2, AA3, and AA4S. Although no agents were found at the time he was arrested in August 1974, he had reportedly acquired "all but one" of the ingredients required to produce a nerve agent. A search of his apartment turned up a variety of materials, including precursors for [[phosgene]] and a drum containing 25&nbsp;pounds of [[sodium cyanide]].<ref>{{citation | url = http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3070093 | title = T Is for Terror: A mad bomber who stalked Los Angeles in the ’70s could be the poster boy for the kind of terrorist the FBI fears today | journal = Newsweek Web Exclusive | date = 9 July 2003 }}</ref> The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a general civilian population was on [[March 20]], [[1995]]. [[Aum Shinrikyo]], an apocalyptic group based in [[Japan]] that believed it necessary to destroy the planet, [[sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway|released sarin into the Tokyo subway system]] killing 12 and injuring over 5,000. The group had attempted biological and chemical attacks on at least 10 prior occasions, but managed to affect only cult members. The group did manage to successfully release sarin outside an apartment building in [[Matsumoto]] in June 1994; this use was directed at a few specific individuals living in the building and was not an attack on the general population. In 2001, after carrying out the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks]] in [[New York City]] on [[September 11]], the organization [[Al Qaeda]] announced that they were attempting to acquire radiological, biological and chemical weapons. This threat was lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes was obtained by the cable television network [[CNN]] in August 2002 showing, among other things, the killing of three dogs by an apparent nerve agent.<ref>{{ citation | last = Robertson | first = Nic | date = August 19, 2002 | url = http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/08/19/terror.tape.chemical/ | title = Disturbing scenes of death show capability with chemical gas | journal = Cable News Network}}</ref> On [[October 26]], [[2002]], [[Spetznaz|Russian special forces]] used a chemical agent (presumably [[KOLOKOL-1]], an [[aerosol]]ized [[fentanyl]] derivative), as a precursor to an assault on [[Chechnya|Chechen]] terrorists, ending the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]]. All 42 of the terrorists and 120 of the hostages were killed during the raid; all but one hostage, who was killed, died from the effects of the agent. In early 2007 multiple terrorist bombings have been reported in [[Iraq]] using chlorine gas. [[2007 chlorine bombings in Iraq|These attacks]] have wounded or sickened more than 350 people. Reportedly the bombers are affiliated with Al-Qaeda in Iraq<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.mnf-iraq.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11530&Itemid=128 | title = Chlorine Tanks Destroyed, Terrorists Killed in Raids | date = 20 April 2007 | author = Multi-National Force Iraq, Combined Press Information Center | id = Press Release A070420a }}</ref> and have used bombs of various sizes up to chlorine tanker trucks.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.mnf-iraq.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11185&Itemid=128 | id = Press Release 20070406-34 | date = 6 April 2007 | author = Multi-National Force Iraq, Combined Press Information Center | title = Suicide Vehicle Detonates outside Police Checkpoint }}</ref> United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the attacks as, "clearly intended to cause panic and instability in the country."<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.un.org/radio/6542.asp | first = Ki-Moon | last = Ban | journal = United Nations Radio | title = Secretary-General Condemns Chlorine Attack in Iraq | date = 19 March 2007 }}</ref> ==See also== {{WMD}} <!-- Please list in alphabetical order --> * [[Agent Orange]] * [[Area denial weapons]] * [[Biological warfare]] * [[Chemical Ali]] * [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] * [[Exotic pollution]] * [[List of chemical warfare agents]] * [[List of environment topics]] * [[Pollution]] * [[Saint Julien Memorial]] * [[Sardasht]] (A town attacked with chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq war.) * [[Stink bomb]] * [[USAMRICD]] * [[Weapons of mass destruction]] * [[Zyklon B]] ==Further reading== * Leo P. Brophy and George J. B. Fisher; ''The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War'' Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959; L. P. Brophy, W. D. Miles and C. C. Cochrane, ''The Chemical Warfare Service: From Laboratory to Field'' (1959); and B. E. Kleber and D. Birdsell, ''The Chemical Warfare Service in Combat'' (1966). official US history; * Gordon M. Burck and Charles C. Flowerree; ''International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation'' 1991 * L. F. Haber. ''The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War'' Oxford University Press: 1986 * James W. Hammond Jr.; ''Poison Gas: The Myths Versus Reality'' Greenwood Press, 1999 * Benoit Morel and Kyle Olson; ''Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention'' Westview Press, 1993 * Jonathan B. Tucker. ''Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda'' (2006) ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== <!-- Reference style as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cite_sources --> * CBWInfo.com (2001). [http://www.cbwinfo.com/History/History.html A Brief History of Chemical and Biological Weapons: Ancient Times to the 19th Century]. Retrieved Nov. 24, 2004. * Chomsky, Noam (Mar. 4, 2001). ''[http://www.countercurrents.org/chomsky1.htm Prospects for Peace in the Middle East]'', page 2. Lecture. * Cordette, Jessica, MPH(c) (2003). [http://www.want2race.net/hper/Chemical_Weapons_of_Mass_Destruction.ppt Chemical Weapons of Mass Destruction]. Retrieved Nov. 29, 2004. * {{cite book | author=Croddy, Eric | title=Chemical and Biological Warfare | publisher=Copernicus | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-387-95076-1}} * Smart, Jeffery K., M.A. (1997). [http://www.usuhs.mil/cbw/history.htm History of Biological and Chemical Warfare]. Retrieved Nov. 24, 2004. * United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session. (May 25, 1994). [http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/riegle1.html The Riegle Report]. Retrieved Nov. 6, 2004. *Gerard J Fitzgerald. American Journal of Public Health. Washington: Apr 2008. Vol. 98, Iss. 4; p. 611 ==External links== * [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/cholinesterase ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cholinesterase Inhibitors, Including Pesticides and Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents] U.S. [[Department of Health and Human Services]] *[http://russianbiochemicalweapons.blogspot.com/ Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons], about the danger posed by non-state weapons transfers *[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=5970 Gaddum Papers at the Royal Society] *[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/cw.htm Chemical Weapons stored in the United States] *[http://www.opcw.org] The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons OPCW *[http://home.exetel.com.au/chemical_warfare/] Chemical Warfare in Australia *[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5390710 "'War of Nerves': A History of Chemical Weapons"] (interview with Jonathan Tucker from [[National Public Radio]] ''[[Talk of the Nation]]'' program, May 8, 2006 {{featured article}} [[Category:Chemical warfare| ]] [[ar:أسلحة كيميائية]] [[bg:Химическо оръжие]] [[cs:Chemické zbraně]] [[cy:Arf gemegol]] [[da:Kemiske våben]] [[de:Chemische Waffe]] [[es:Arma química]] [[eo:Kemia armilo]] [[fa:جنگ‌افزار شیمیایی]] [[fr:Arme chimique]] [[ko:화학 무기]] [[hr:Kemijsko ratovanje]] [[id:Senjata kimia]] [[is:Efnavopn]] [[it:Armi chimiche]] [[he:נשק כימי]] [[lt:Cheminis ginklas]] [[hu:Vegyi fegyver]] [[nl:Chemische wapens]] [[ja:化学兵器]] [[no:Kjemisk krigføring]] [[uz:Kimyoviy qurol]] [[pl:Broń chemiczna]] [[pt:Guerra química]] [[ru:Химическое оружие]] [[simple:Chemical warfare]] [[sl:Kemično orožje]] [[sr:Хемијско оружје]] [[sh:Kemijsko ratovanje]] [[fi:Kemiallinen ase]] [[sv:Kemiska vapen]] [[ta:வேதியியல் யுத்தம்]] [[vi:Vũ khí hóa học]] [[tr:Kimyasal Savaş]] [[uk:Хімічна зброя]] [[zh:化学武器]]