Child sexuality 250193 225599139 2008-07-14T14:17:09Z Graham87 194203 put see also section in correct place per [[WP:GTL|layout guide]] '''Child [[human sexuality|sexuality]]''' refers to phenomena researched as the [[sexual]] feelings, behaviors and development of [[children]]. ==Two basic views== Theories of sexual development may be broadly divided into two schools of thought: #Those which tend to emphasize innate biology, which may be encouraged or disturbed during childhood. That is, that human sexual development is primarily a biological process and thus basically similar across cultures, and that there is thus a relatively narrow model for healthy sexual development, although this may be disturbed by the influence of the larger culture or by other means. This is the approach used most often in the medical study of child development. #Those which tend to emphasize sexuality as a social construct (with child sexuality strongly influenced by the larger society). This latter school often uses the terms ''normative'' (culturally appropriate behavior) and ''non-normative'' (culturally inappropriate behavior).<ref name="larsson">Larsson, IngBeth. ''[http://www.sos.se/FULLTEXT/123/2001-123-20/2001-123-20.pdf Child sexuality and sexual behaviour]'' (2000, Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare (report), Article number 2000-36-001. English translation (Lambert & Tudball) Article number 2001-123-20.</ref> ==Research== ===Early research=== [[Sigmund Freud]] (1856–1939), in his 1905 work ''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]],'' outlined a theory of [[psychosexual development]] with five distinct phases: the ''oral stage'' (0 - 1.5 years), the ''anal stage'' (1.5 - 3.5 years), the ''phallic stage'' (3.5 - 6 years) culminating in the resolution of the [[Oedipus conflict]] followed by a period of [[The Latency Phase (6-12 years of age)|sexual latency]] (6 years to puberty) and the ''genital'', or adult, stage. Freud's basic thesis was that children's early sexuality is polymorphous and that strong incestuous drives develop, and the child must harness or [[Sublimation (psychology)|sublimate]] these to develop a healthy adult sexuality. Freud's theories were developed about a century ago in an environment differing from the modern, and his research was largely confined to his own observations and readings.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} Some of Freud's theories (such as [[penis envy]]) have been largely superseded, and many modern experts consider his work obsolete, and the core body of his work has never been entirely accepted by the scientific and medical communities. [[Alfred Kinsey]] (1894-1956), whose two seminal works are the [[Kinsey Reports]] (1948 and 1953), marshalled the resources to make the first large-scale surveys of sexual behavior. Kinsey's work focuses on adults, but he also studied children and developed the first statistical reports of childhood masturbation. Critics have stated that some of the data in the reports could not have been obtained without observation or participation in [[child sexual abuse]], or through collaborations with child molesters.<ref name="Reisman">{{cite web | last = Reisman | first = Judith | title = A PERSONAL ODYSSEY TO THE TRUTH | url = http://www.special-guests.com/reisman4.html | accessdate = 2008-01-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Treating Child Sex Offenders and Victims: A Practical Guide|last=Salter, Ph.D.|first=Anna C.|year=1988|pages=p22-24 |publisher=Sage Publications Inc |isbn= 0803931824}}</ref> Swedish researcher IngBeth Larsson, writing in 2000, notes that "It is quite common for references still to cite Alfred Kinsey", due to the paucity of subsequent large-scale studies of children's sexual behavior.<ref name="larsson" /> ===Current methodology of study=== Empirical knowledge about child sexual behaviour is not usually gathered by direct interviews of children, (partly due to ethical considerations),<ref name="larsson" /> but rather by: *Observing children being treated for problematical behavior such as use of force in sex play,<ref name="larsson_cite_gil">Gil & Cavanagh Johnson, 1993, op. cit.; Cavanagh Johnson, T., Feldmeth, J. R. (1993). "Sexual behaviors – a continuum". In I. E. Gil & T. Cavanagh Johnson. ''Sexualized Children'' (pp. 39 – 52); Friedrich, W. N., Grambsch, P., Damon, L., Hewitt, S., Koverola, C., Lang, R., Wolfe, V., Broughton, D. (1992). "Child sexual behavior inventory: Normative and clinical comparisons". ''Psychological Assessment'', vol. 4, no.3:303 – 311. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref> often using [[Anatomically correct doll|dolls having genitals]].<ref name="larsson_cite_cohn">Cohn, D. S. (1991). "Anatomic doll play of preschoolers referred for sexual abuse and those not referred". ''Child Abuse & Neglect'' 15:455 – 466.; Everson & Boat, 1991; Jampole, L. & Weber, M. K. (1987). "An assessment of the behavior of sexually abused and nonabused children with anatomically correct dolls". ''Child Abuse & Neglect'': 11 187 – 192.; Sivan, A., Schor, D., Koeppl, G., Noble, L. (1988). "Interaction of normal children with anatomic dolls". ''Child Abuse & Neglect'', 12:295 – 304. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref> *Recollections by adults.<ref name="larsson_cite_haugaard">Haugaard, J. J. & Tilly, C (1988). "Characteristics predicting children’s responses to sexual encounters with other children". ''Child Abuse & Neglect'' 12:209 – 218.; Haugaard, J. J. (1996). "Sexual behaviors between children: Professionals’ opinions and undergraduates’ recollections". ''Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services'', 2:81 – 89.; Lamb & Coakley, 1993; Larsson, Lindell & Svedin, publication datat not available; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref> and *Observation by caregivers.<ref name="larsson_cite_friedrich">Friedrich, W. N., Grambsch, P., Broughton, D., Kuiper, J., Beilke, R. L. (1991). "Normative sexual behavior in children". ''Pediatrics'' 88: 456 – 464; Phipps-Yonas, S., Yonas, A., Turner, M., Kauper, M, (1993). "Sexuality in early childhood". ''University of Minnesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs Reports'', 23:1 – 5. ; Lindblad, F., Gustafsson, P., Larsson, I., Lundin, B. (1995). "Preschooler’s sexual behaviour at daycare centers: an epidemiological study". ''Child Abuse & Neglect'' vol. 19, no. 5:569 – 577.; Fitzpatrick & Deehan, 1995; Larsson, I., Svedin, C-G. (1999). ''Sexual behaviour in Swedish preschool children as observed by their parents''. Manuscript.; Larsson, I., Svedin C-G., Friedrich, W. "Differences and similarities in sexual behaviour among preschoolers in Sweden and USA". ''Nordic Journal of Psychiatry''. Printing information unavailable.; Smith & Grocke, 1995; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref> ==Behavior== ===Normative and non-normative behaviors=== Although there is variation between individuals, children generally are curious about their own bodies and those of others and engage in [[Genital play|explorative sex play]].<ref>[http://parentkidsright.com/pt-sexplay.html SEX PLAY: parenting strategies by Dr. Marilyn Heins<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ces.purdue.edu/providerparent/Health-Safety/WhenChildren'sPlay.htm PPP: Health and Safety || When Children's Play Involves Sexuality || Sex play is normal<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, the concept of child sexuality is fundamentally different from goal-driven adult sexual behavior, and observed bodily penetration and oral-genital contact (sometimes described as imitations of adult behaviors<ref name="larsson_cite_larsson&svedin">Larsson & Svedin, 1999, op. cit.; Larsson & Svedin, publication data unavailable; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref>) are very uncommon,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Friedrich WN, Fisher J, Broughton D, Houston M, Shafran CR |title=Normative sexual behavior in children: a contemporary sample |journal=Pediatrics |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=E9 |year=1998 |pmid=9521975|doi=10.1542/peds.101.4.e9}}</ref> but are more common among children who have been [[sexual abuse|sexually abused]].<ref name="larsson" /> In one study of Swedish students, 7.1% of boys and 1.4% of girls reported engaging in vaginal intercourse before the age of 13.<ref name="larsson2001">Larsson, I. & Svedin, C. G. (2001). "Sexual experiences in childhood: young adult's recollections," ''Arch Sex Behav'', 31(3):263-73.</ref> Children with other types of behaviour disorder may also display more behaviours of a sexual nature than other children.<ref name="larsson" /> Some activities are thought to be relatively harmless in certain cultures. Okami et al. (1997) found no association between childhood peer sexual experiences, including games involving masturbation, and later adjustment.<ref>Okami, Paul; Olmstead, Richard; and Abramson, Paul R. (1997). [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_n4_v34/ai_20536042/pg_1 "Sexual experiences in early childhood: 18-year longitudinal data from the UCLA family lifestyles project - University of California, Los Angeles,"] ''Journal of Sex Research'', 34, 339-347.</ref> This study did not distinguish between children who were involved in penetrative activities (of which the sample was too small to be measured) and children who were involved in other activities defined as sex play ("theme sex games such as 'doctor,' 'house,' or 'mom and dad"). In a 2002 study of 269 [[Sweden|Swedish]] students, 30% of those who had a sexual experience with a peer before the age of 13 assessed the activity as having had a positive effect on them as an adult, 66% thought it had no positive or negative effects, and 4% reported a negative effect. Except one, all of the subjects who reported a negative effect were involved in coercive activities.<ref name="larsson2001" /> This study did not distinguish between the types of activities. ===Symptomatic behaviors=== Children who have been the victim of [[child sexual abuse]] sometimes show sexualized behavior,<ref name="larsson_cite_kendall">(Friedrich et al, 1992, 1993, op. cit.; Kendall-Tackett, K. E., Williams, L., Finkelhor, D. (1993). "The impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies". ''Psychological Bulletin'', 113:164 – 180.; Cosentino, C. E, Meyer-Mahlenburg, H., Alpert, J., Weinberg, S., Gaines, R. (1995). "Sexual behavior problems and psychopathology symptoms in sexually abused girls". ''Journal of American Academy Child & Adolescent Psychiatry'', 34, 8:1033 – 1042.; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref><ref name="larsson_cite_friedrich2">Friedrich et al (1992), op. cit.; cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit.</ref> which may be defined as expressed behavior that is non-normative for the culture. Typical symptomatic behaviors may include excessive or public [[masturbation]], and coercing, manipulating or tricking other children into non-consensual or unwanted [[sexual activities]], sometimes defined as "[[child-on-child sexual abuse]]". Sexualized behavior is thought to constitute the best indication that a child has been sexually abused, although some victims do not exhibit abnormal behavior.<ref name="larsson_cite_kendall" /> Children who exhibit sexualized behavior may also have other behavioral problems, although factors other than sexual abuse may cause these problems.<ref name="larsson_cite_friedrich2" /> Other symptoms of child sexual abuse may include manifestations of [[post-traumatic stress]] in younger children; fear, aggression, and nightmares in young school-age children; and depression in older children.<ref name="larsson_cite_kendall" /> However, a 2004 study contended that "[Childhood] sexual behavior is not as valid a marker of sexual abuse as once thought."<ref>Wakefield, H. (2004). [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/library/jmcraig1.htm Sexual Abuse Allegations in Custody Disputes], J. M. Craig Press</ref> ==Normative behavior== The following sections describe typical culturally-normed behavior in most current developed Western societies. ===Early childhood=== The term ''early childhood'' may cover up through ages four, five, or six, depending on the focus of the particular researcher or commentator. During this period, *Children are often curious about where babies come from.<ref name="pike">[http://muextension.missouri.edu/xplor/hesguide/humanrel/gh6002.htm GH6002 Sexuality and Your Child: For Children Ages 3 to 7, MU Extension<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> *Children may explore other children's and adults' bodies out of curiosity.<ref name="pike" /> * By age four, children may show significant attachment to the opposite-sex parent.<ref name="pike" /> * Children begin to have a sense of modesty and of the difference between private and public behavior.<ref name="pike" /> * For many children, genital touching increases, especially when they are tired or upset.<ref name="pike" /> *Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during this period children should learn: **That touching their sex organs is normal, and to seek privacy when they want to touch their sex organs.<ref name="planned_parenthood">''[http://www.plannedparenthood.org/educational-resources/for-parents/human-sexuality-what-children-need-to-know.htm Human Sexuality — What Children Need to Know and When They Need to Know It]'', Planned Parenthood Federation of America</ref> **The biological differences between males and females, and how babies are made.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> **That the child's body belongs to himself or herself, and how to say "no" to touching.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> **The correct terms for sexual body parts, and how to talk about all their body parts without feeling "naughty".<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> ====Masturbation and orgasm==== Recent studies in Sweden indicate that masturbation in children of this age is observed with incidence between 6% and 14%, and more common with boys than with girls. The observers generally "judged the masturbation to be associated with relaxation and desire on the part of the child." (pp. 17-19) <ref name="larsson" />. Some researchers have suggested that child masturbation may be considered nonsexual if the child has not learned to associate it with sex.<ref name="gagnon">Gagnon, J. H., and Simon, W. ''Sexual conduct – the social sources of human sexuality'' (Chicago, Aldine Publishing Company, 1973)</ref> Until boys start producing semen (around puberty), they can only experience dry [[orgasms]]. The ability to ejaculate develops gradually and its timing has been relatively constant across cultures over the last century.<ref name="janssen">Janssen, D. F. (2007) First stirrings: Cultural notes on orgasm, ejaculation, and wet dreams. Journal of Sex Research 44(2), 122–134</ref> ===Early school age=== Early school age covers approximately ages five, six, and seven. Children become more aware of gender differences, and tend to choose same-sex friends and playmates, even disparaging the opposite sex.<ref name="mayoclinic">[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sex-education/HQ00547 Sex education: Talking to toddlers and preschoolers about sex - MayoClinic.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Children may drop their close attachment to their opposite-sex parent and become more attached to their same-sex parent.<ref name="pike" /> During this time children, especially girls, show increased awareness of social norms regarding sex, nudity, and privacy.<ref name="Richardson-Schuster">Richardson, Justin, M.D., and Schuster, Mark, M.D., Ph.D. ''[http://www.enotalone.com/article/2479.html Everything You Never Wanted Your Kids to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid They'd Ask)]'', 2003, Three Rivers Press</ref> Children may use sexual terms to test adult reaction.<ref name="pike" /> "Bathroom humor" (jokes and conversation relating to excretory functions), present in earlier stages, continues.<ref name="planned_parenthood_ohio">[http://www.plannedparenthood.org/central-ohio/sexuality-development.htm Planned Parenthood - Sexuality Development<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Masturbation continues to be common.<ref name="pike" /><ref name="planned_parenthood_ohio" /> Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during early school years, children should learn these concepts: *That all creatures reproduce themselves, and how plants and animals grow and reproduce.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> *That all people, including the child's parents and grandparents, live through a life cycle that has a beginning and an end and includes sexuality at all ages.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> *That people experience sexual pleasure in a number of ways, and that it is normal to have sexual thoughts and fantasies.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> *About non-stereotyped gender roles, and that sexual identity includes sexual orientation ([[homosexual]], [[heterosexual]], and [[bisexual]]).<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> *About sexual abuse and its dangers — that sexual predators may seem kind, giving, and loving, and may be friends or family members; and to protect themselves from potential sexual abuse.<ref name="planned_parenthood" /> ===Middle childhood===<!-- This section is linked from [[List of psychology topics]] --> 'Middle childhood' covers the ages from about six to about nine, depending on the methodology and the behavior being studied. Individual development varies considerably. As this stage progresses, children's choice of same-sex friends becomes more marked, extending to disparagement of the opposite sex.<ref>[http://www.secasa.com.au/index.php/workers/50/131 Adolescent and child sexuality<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Later childhood age=== Some generally-accepted prescriptions (American) are that during this period children should learn: <ref name="planned_parenthood" /> *The general stages of [[sexual development]] in young humans of each sex and the general timing of normal development (including emotional changes). *That sex is pleasurable. *Knowledge about aspects of [[sex]] in society, including [[prostitution]], [[rape]], and [[Sexual abuse|exploitive relationships]]. *How to protect oneself against [[pregnancy]] and [[sexually transmitted infections]]. ===Sex play among siblings=== In a study of 796 undergraduates, 15% of females and 10% of males reported some form of sexual experience involving a sibling; most of these fell short of actual intercourse. Approximately one quarter of these experiences were described as abusive or exploitive. The effect of non-exploitive sibling sex play is unclear, with some studies suggesting long term effects, both positive and negative, and others finding no significant effects.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/qg7tu631r7503228/ SpringerLink - Journal Article<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/t188h6334n81313g/ SpringerLink - Journal Article<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Legal aspects== In many countries and localities, sexual relationships that involve children, even consensual ones, are prohibited by [[statutory rape]] and [[child sexual abuse]] laws. Some, but not all, of these countries allow youth who are close in age to have sexual relationships, although there is usually a minimum age below which such relationships are considered statutory rape regardless of the closeness in age.<ref>''Black's Law Dictionary 8th Edition''. '''child''', "at common law, a person who has not reached the age of 14." ''See also'' definition under '''rape''' "carnal knowledge of a child is frequently declared to be rape by statute."</ref> The age at which a minor may legally consent to sexual relations with a person of any age is referred to as the [[age of consent]] and varies from country to country. ==Cultural issues== ===Polynesia=== Child sexuality, like adult sexuality, may take many forms and be gauged by different norms in different societies. Thus, a given behavior that is problematic in one society may be normative in another. For instance, observations of early [[Tahitian]] society indicate childhood sexual activity was more openly encouraged than normally found in other societies.<ref name = "Growing Up Sexually, an atlas of worldwide child sexuality">[http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/TAHITI.HTML GUS<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Explorers and researchers such as Etienne Marchand, [[Adam Johann von Krusenstern]], R.C. Suggs (1961), Fredrick O'Brien (1919), and others discovered the [[Marquesas]] had unique sexual customs considered deviant to Westerners. Children were permitted and sometimes encouraged to engage in sexual play with other children, encouraged to learn from adults by observation, and experiment with adults but with care taken to prevent activities that would cause pregnancy unless socially beneficial to the family. Contact with Western societies has changed many of these customs, so research into their pre-Western social history has to be done by reading antique writings. ==See also== *[[Adolescent sexuality]] *[[Attachment theory]] *[[Child marriage]] *[[Child sexual abuse]] *[[Child-on-child sexual abuse]] *[[Covert incest]] *[[Developmental psychology]] *[[Developmental stage theories]] *[[Genital play]] *[[Jean Piaget]] *[[Psychosexual development]] *[[Puberty]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== *American Psychological Association. (2007). [http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualizationrep.pdf APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls]. *Diana Gittins, Children's Sexuality: Why Do Adults Panic?. In The Child in Question. Macmillan, 1997. ISBN 0-333-51109-3. *Ronald Goldman and Juliette Goldman, Children's Sexual Thinking: A Comparative Study of Children Aged Five to Fifteen Years in Australia, North America, Britain and Sweden. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982. ISBN 0-7100-0883-X. *Loretta Haroian, "[http://www.ejhs.org/volume3/Haroian/body.htm Child Sexual Development]", monograph prepared for student use at the Institute for Advanced Study of Human Sexuality, ca. 1985. *Stevi Jackson, Childhood and Sexuality. Blackwell Publishing, 1982. ISBN 0-631-12871-9. *Floyd M. Martinson, "Children and Sex, Part II: Childhood Sexuality", in Bullough, Vern Leroy & Bullough, Bonnie (eds.), Human Sexuality: An encyclopedia, New York: Garland Publishing, 1994, p. 111-116. *Floyd M. Martinson, The Sexual Life of Children, Bergin & Garvey, 1994. ISBN 0-89789-376-X. *Susan M. Moore, Doreen A. Rosenthal, Sexuality in Adolescence. Routledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-07528-9. *David L. Weis, "[http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/IES/USA08.HTM Childhood Sexuality]", in Robert T. Francoeur (ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, New York: Continuum, 1997. *Sharon Lamb (2002). ''The Secret Lives of Girls: What Good Girls Really Do--Sex Play, Aggression, and Their Guilt'', Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-0107-8. *Sharon Lamb (2006). ''Sex, Therapy, and Kids: Addressing their Concerns through Talk and Play.'' W.W. Norton. *Sharon Lamb & Lyn Mikel Brown (2006). ''Packaging Girlhood: Rescuing our Daughters from Marketers' Schemes.'' St. Martin's Press. *Gil, E. & Cavanagh Johnson, T. (1993). ''Sexualized children – Assessment and treatment of sexualized children and children who molest.'' Launch Press. Cited in Larsson, 2000, op. cit. *Kendall-Tackett, Williams and Finkelhor (1993), op. cit.; cited in Larsson, op. cit. *http://www.springerlink.com/content/qg7tu631r7503228 ==External links== *[http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/GUS_MAIN_INDEX.HTM Growing Up Sexually, an atlas of worldwide child sexuality] *[http://www.violence.de/prescott/bulletin/article.html Body pleasure and the origins of violence] *Mark Hanson, P. Gluckman. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006 Evolution, development and timing of puberty], ''Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism'', January 2006. *[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/12/051201022811.htm Research shows how evolution explains age of puberty], ''ScienceDaily'', December 1, 2005. *[http://www.sos.se/fulltext/123/2001-123-20/summary.htm Sexual abuse of children, Child sexuality and sexual behaviour- Department of Health and Environment of Sweden] *[http://s-fe.com/Marquesas_Islands Children's Sexual Customs - Marquesas] {{Sexual ethics}} [[Category:Childhood]] [[Category:Sexuality and age]] [[de:Infantile Sexualität nach Freud]] [[fr:Sexualité infantile]] [[it:Sessualità infantile]] [[ja:子供の性]] [[no:Barneseksualitet]] [[pt:Sexualidade infantil]] [[fi:Lasten seksuaalisuus]] [[zh:兒童性行為]]