Chili pepper
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223278515
2008-07-03T11:08:02Z
151.100.46.19
{{otheruses|Chili}}
[[Image:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|thumb|Chili peppers]]
The '''chili pepper''', '''chilli pepper''', or '''chili''', is the fruit of the plants from the [[genus]] ''[[Capsicum]]'', which are members of the [[Solanaceae|nightshade family]], ''[[Solanaceae]]''. Even though chilis may be thought of as a [[vegetable]], their culinary usage is, generally, a [[spice]], the part of the plant that is usually harvested is the [[fruit]], and [[botany]] considers the plant a [[berry]] shrub.
The name, which is spelled differently in many regions ('''chili, chile, or chilli'''), comes from [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] ''chīlli'' via the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''chile''. The term chili in most of the world refers exclusively to the smaller, hot types of capsicum. The mild larger types are called ''[[bell pepper]]'' in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] (and sometimes the [[United Kingdom]]), ''[[capsicum|sweet pepper]]'' in Britain and [[Ireland]], ''[[capsicum]]'' in [[India]] and [[Australasia]], and ''[[paprika]]'' in many [[Europe]]an countries. Finally, bell peppers are often named simply by their colour (e.g. green or red pepper).
Chili peppers and their various [[cultivar]]s originate in the [[Americas]]; they are now grown around the world because they are widely used as [[spice]]s or [[vegetable]]s in [[cuisine]], and as [[medicine]].
== History==
Chilli peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BC and perhaps earlier. There is [[archaeological]] evidence at sites located in southwestern [[Ecuador]] that chilli peppers were already well [[domesticated]] more than 6000 years ago,<ref>Perry, L. ''et al''. 2007. Starch fossils and the domestication and dispersal of chilli peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) in the Americas. ''Science'' 315: 986-988.</ref><ref>BBC News Online. 2007. Chillies heated ancient cuisine. Friday, 16 February. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6367299.stm. Accessed 16 February 2007.</ref> and is one of the first cultivated crops in the Americas that is self-pollinating.
Chilli peppers are thought to have been domesticated at least five times by prehistoric peoples in different parts of South and North America, from [[Peru]] in the south to [[Mexico]] in the north and parts of Colorado and New Mexico ([[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]]).<ref>[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html Bosland, P.W. 1996. Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop. ''p. 479-487. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. ASHS Press, Arlington, VA.'']</ref>
[[Christopher Columbus]] was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the [[Caribbean]]), and called them "peppers" because of their similarity in taste (though not in appearance) with the Old World [[Black pepper|peppers]] of the ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]]'' genus. Columbus was keen to propose that he had in fact opened a new direct nautical route to Asia, contrary to reality and the expert consensus of the time, and it has been speculated that he was therefore inclined to denote these new substances as "pepper" in order to associate them with the known Asian spice.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Chillis were cultivated around the globe after Columbus' time.<ref>Heiser Jr., C.B. 1976. Pp. 265-268 in N.W. Simmonds (ed.). ''Evolution of Crop Plants''. London: Longman.</ref><ref>Eshbaugh, W.H. 1993. Pp. 132-139 in J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.). ''New Crops''. New York: Wiley.</ref> [[Diego Álvarez Chanca]], a physician on Columbus' second voyage to the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to [[Spain]], and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.
From [[Mexico]], at the time the Spanish colony that controlled commerce with Asia, chili peppers spread rapidly into the [[Philippines]] and then to [[India]], [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]] with the aid of [[Europe]]an sailors. The new spice was quickly incorporated into the local cuisines.
An alternate sequence for chili peppers' spread has the Portuguese picking up the pepper from Spain, and thence to India, as described by [[Lizzie Collingham]] in her book ''Curry''.<ref>{{cite book | last = Collingham| first = Elizabeth | title = Curry | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2006 | month = February | id = ISBN 0-09-943786-4 }}</ref> The evidence provided is that the chili pepper figures heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site of a Portuguese colony (e.g. [[Vindaloo]], an Indian interpretation of a Portuguese dish). Collingham also describes the journey of chili peppers from India, through Central Asia and [[Turkey]], to [[Hungary]], where it became the national spice in the form of [[paprika]].
In the publication [[Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift]] (1995), Professor [[Hakon Hjelmqvist]] published an article on pre-Columbian chili peppers in Europe. In an archaeological dig in the block of St. Botulf in [[Lund]], [[archaeologists]] claimed to have found a ''Capsicum frutescens'' in a layer dating to the 13th century. Hjelmqvist also claims that ''Capsicum'' was described by the Greek [[Therophrasteus]] (370-286 BC). He also mentions other antique sources. The Roman poet [[Martialis]] (around the 1st century) described "Piper crudum" (raw pepper) to be long and containing seeds. The description of the plants does not fit [[Black pepper|pepper]] ''(Piper nigrum)'', which does not grow well in European climates.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cayennepeppar från Lunds medeltid||first=Hakon|last=Hjelmqvist|author=Hakon Hjelmqvist|work=Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift, vol 89|pages=193-}}</ref>
The Black Habanero or as it is sometimes known, the Chocolate Habanero or Habanero Negra, is thought to be the closest to the original peppers that grew in the South American coastal plains. {{Fact|date=February 2008}} It is known to gourmets but rarely available, due to its long maturity and general rarity. Seeds are more readily available today but care is needed when purchasing as many sub species are sold under the same name. {{Fact|date=January 2008}}
== Species and cultivars ==
[[Image:Large Cayenne.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Cayenne chili pepper]]
{{Seealso|List of capsicum cultivars}}
The most common species of chili peppers are:
* ''[[Capsicum annuum]]'', which includes many common varieties such as [[bell pepper]]s, [[paprika]], [[cayenne pepper|cayenne]], [[jalapeño]]s, and the [[chiltepin]]
* ''[[Capsicum frutescens]]'', which includes the [[tabasco pepper|tabasco]] peppers
* ''[[Capsicum chinense]]'', which includes the hottest peppers such as the [[naga jolokia|naga]], [[habanero]] and [[Scotch bonnet]]
* ''[[Capsicum pubescens]]'', which includes the South American [[rocoto]] peppers
* ''[[Capsicum baccatum]]'', which includes the South American [[aji pepper]]s
[[Image:Capsicum1.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Assorted [[bell pepper]] fruits from Mexico]]
Though there are only a few commonly used species, there are many [[cultivar]]s and methods of preparing chili peppers that have different common names for culinary use. [[Bell pepper]]s, for example, are the same cultivar of ''C. annuum''; immature peppers being green and mature peppers being red. In the same species are the [[jalapeño]], the [[poblano]] (when dried is referred to as ancho), [[New Mexico pepper|New Mexico]] (which is also known as chile colorado), [[Anaheim pepper|Anaheim]], [[Serrano pepper|Serrano]], and other cultivars.
[[Scotch bonnet (pepper)|Scotch bonnet]]s, and [[habanero]]s are common varieties of ''C. chinense''.
The species ''C. frutescens'' appears as [[chile de arbol|chiles de árbol]], aji, [[pequin]], [[tabasco pepper|tabasco]], [[cherry pepper]]s, [[Malagueta pepper|malagueta]] and others.
Peppers are commonly broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers. Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories or as a cross between them.
== Intensity ==
{{further|[[Capsaicin]], [[Scoville scale]]}}
The substances that gives chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called ''capsaicinoids''. Capsaicin is the primary ingredient in [[pepper spray]].
When consumed, capsaicinoids bind with pain receptors in the mouth and throat that are normally responsible for sensing heat. Once activated by the capsaicinoids, these receptors send a message to the brain that the person has consumed something hot. The brain responds to the burning sensation by raising the heart rate, increasing perspiration and releasing the body's natural painkilling chemical, [[endorphin]].The heat can often be described as [[addictive]].
The "heat" of chili peppers is measured in Scoville units (SHU). [[Bell pepper]]s rank at 0 (SHU), New Mexico green chilis at about 1,500 SHU, jalapeños at 3,000–6,000 SHU, and habaneros at 300,000 SHU. The record for the hottest chili pepper was assigned by the [[Guinness Book of Records]] to the [[Naga Jolokia]], measuring over 1,000,000 SHU. Pure capsaicin, which is a [[hydrophobic]], colorless, odorless, crystalline to waxy solid at room temperature, measures 16,000,000 SHU.
== Culinary use ==
[[Image:Thai peppers.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thai pepper]]. Similar in variety as the [[African birdseye]], it is considerably strong for its size.]]
The chili has a long association with [[Mexican cuisine]] as later adapted into [[Tex-Mex cuisine]]. Although unknown in Asia until Europeans introduced it there, chili has also become a part of the [[Korean cuisine|Korean]], [[India]]n, [[Indonesia]]n, [[Szechuan cuisine|Szechuan]], [[Thailand|Thai]] and other cooking traditions. Its popularity has seen it adopted into many cuisines of the World.
==== Chili fruit ====
The fruit is eaten raw or cooked for its fiery hot flavour which is concentrated along the top of the pod. The stem end of the pod has glands which produce the capsaicin, which then flows down through the pod. The white flesh, that surrounds the seeds, contains the highest concentrations of capsaicin. Removing the seeds and inner membranes is thus effective at reducing the heat of a pod.
[[Image:Green chillies.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fresh Indian Green Chilis sold in HAL market, [[Bangalore]]]]
Chili is often sold worldwide as a [[spice]] in dried and powdered form. In the [[United States]], it is often made from the Mexican ''chile ancho'' variety, but with small amounts of cayenne added for heat. In the [[Southwest United States]], dried ground chili peppers, cumin, garlic and oregano is often known as [[chili powder]]. [[Chipotle]]s are dry, smoked red (ripe) jalapeños.
Chili peppers are also often used around the world to make a wide variety of sauces, known as ''[[hot sauce]]'', ''chili sauce'', or ''pepper sauce''. There are countless recipes.
'''[[Indian]]''' cooking has multiple uses for chilis, from snacks like [[bajjia]] where the chilis are dipped in batter and fried to the notoriously hot [[vindaloo]]. Chilis are also dried and roasted and salted for later use as a side dish for rice varieties like vadam (a kind of pappad). In [[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkish]] or [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] cuisine, chilis are widely used where it is known as ''Kırmızı Biber'' (Red Pepper) or ''Acı Biber'' (Hot Pepper). [[Sambal]] is dipping sauce made from chili peppers with many other ingredients such as garlic, onion, shallots, salt, vinegar and sugar, which is very popular in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. Chili powder is an important spice in [[Persian cuisine]] and is used moderately in a variety of dishes.
==== Chili leaves ====
The leaves of the chili pepper plant, which are mildly bitter, are cooked as [[Leaf vegetable|greens]] in [[Filipino cuisine]], where they are called ''dahon ng sili'' (literally "chili leaves"). They are often used in the chicken soup dish known as ''[[tinola]]''.[http://www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html]
In Korean cuisine, the leaves are also used to produce [[kimchi]] (풋고추잎 깍두기).<ref>http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm</ref>
In Japanese cuisine,the leaves are cooked as [[Leaf vegetable|greens]], and also cooked in ''[[tsukudani]]'' style for preservation.
== Decoration ==
[[Image:Chilis at Pike Place Market.JPG|thumb|200px|Chili peppers can also be used decoratively]]
There are entire breeds of chili pepper which are not intended for consumption at all, but are grown only for their decorative qualities, generally referred to as "ornamental peppers". Some of them are too hot for most common cooking techniques, or simply don't taste good. Some are grown for both decoration and food. Either way, they tend to have peppers of unusual shapes or colors. Examples of these include [[Thai Ornamental]], Black Pearl, Marble, [[Numex Twilight]], and the Medusa pepper. Numex Twilight is a green plant which produces fruit starting purple, then ripening to yellow, orange, and red. Black Pearl has black leaves and round black fruit that ripen to a bright red. In India, the chili, along with [[Lime (fruit)|lime]] is used to ward off [[evil spirit]]s and is often seen in vehicles and in homes for that purpose. It is also used to check the [[evil eye]] and remove its effects in Hinduism as people will also be asked to spit into a handful of chilis kept in that plate, which are then thrown into fire. If the chilis make a noise - as they should - then there is no case of "drishti" (evil eye); if on the other hand they don't make any sound, then the spell of the evil eye is removed in the fire.
[[Image:Black pearl cultivar.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Black Pearl cultivar has round black fruit that ripen to a bright red]]
== Popularity ==
[[Image:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|left|thumb|Scotch bonnet chili peppers in a Caribbean market]]
Chili peppers are a popular item in food as well. They are rich in [[vitamin C]]. Some believe them to have many beneficial effects on health.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Psychologist [[Paul Rozin]] suggests that eating chilis is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a [[roller coaster]], in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful.This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any risk of bodily harm. <ref>{{cite journal |last= Paul Rozin1 and Deborah Schiller|first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1980|month= |title= The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans |journal= Motivation and Emotion |volume= 4 |issue= 1 |pages= 77–101 |id= |url= |accessdate= 2007-09-20 |quote=|doi= 10.1007/BF00995932 }}Journal
Publisher
ISSN 0146-7239 (Print) 1573-6644 (Online)
Issue Volume 4, Number 1 / March, 1980
DOI 10.1007/BF00995932
Pages
Subject Collection Behavioral Science
SpringerLink Date Wednesday, January 19, 2005</ref>
[[Image:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg|thumb|Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal]]
===Evolutionary advantages===
[[Bird]]s do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as [[mammal]]s, as capsaicin acts on a specific nerve receptor in mammals, and avian nervous systems are rather different. Chili peppers are in fact a favorite food of many birds living in the chili peppers' natural range. The flesh of the peppers provides the birds with a nutritious meal rich in [[vitamin C]]. In return, the [[seed]]s of the peppers are distributed by the birds, as they drop the seeds while eating the pods or the seeds pass through the [[digestive tract]] unharmed. This relationship is theorized to have promoted the [[evolution]] of the protective capsaicin.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Products based on this substance have been sold to treat the seeds in bird feeders, in order to deter squirrels and other mammalian vermin without also deterring birds.
== Spelling and usage ==
The three primary spellings are ''chili'', ''chile'' and ''chilli'', all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
* ''Chili'' is widely used, although in much of South America the plant and its fruit are better known as ''ají'', ''locoto'', ''chile'', or ''rocoto''. However, this spelling is discouraged by some in the United States of America, since it also commonly refers to a popular Southwestern-American dish (also known as [[chili con carne]] (literally chili with meat); the official state dish of Texas<ref>[http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/symbols.html State Symbols - Texas State Library<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>), as well as to the mixture of cumin and other spices ([[chili powder]]) used to flavor it. Chili powder and chile powder, on the other hand, can both refer to dried, ground chili peppers.
* ''Chile'' is an alternate usage, the most common Spanish spelling in [[Mexico]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Heiser| first = Charles | title = Seed To Civlization: The Story of Food | publisher = Cambridge: Harvard University Press| date = 1990 | month = August | id = ISBN 0-67-479681-0 }}</ref>, as well as some parts of the [[United States of America]] and [[Canada]], which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the American southwest (particularly northern [[New Mexico]]), ''chile'' also denotes a thick, spicy, un-vinegared sauce, which is available in red and green varieties and which is often served over most [[w:New Mexican Food|New Mexican cuisine]].
* ''Chilli'' was the original{{Dubious|date=March 2008}} [[Romanization]] of the [[Náhuatl language]] word for the fruit (''chīlli'') <ref>[http://www.kakawachocolates.com/index.php?main_page=page_4 A Brief History of Chilies : Kakawa Chocolate House, Mesoamerican Mayan Aztec Drinking Chocolate, Historic European and Colonial American Drinking Chocolate, Truffles and More<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and is the preferred British spelling according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', although it also lists ''chile'' and ''chili'' as variants. This spelling is discouraged by some, since it would be pronounced differently in the [[Spanish language]], into which it was first Romanized.
Despite the country's mapped shape resembling a chili pepper, the name of this plant bears no relation to [[Chile]], the country, which is named after the [[Quechua]] ''chin'' ("cold"), ''tchili'' ("snow"), or ''chilli'' ("where the land ends"). Chile is one of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilis are known as ''ají'', a word of [[Taíno]] origin.
There is also some disagreement about whether it is proper to use the word "pepper" when discussing chili peppers because "pepper" originally referred to the genus [[Piper (genus)|Piper]], not Capsicum. Despite this dispute, a sense of ''pepper'' referring to Capsicum is supported by English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary (sense 2b of ''pepper'') and [[Merriam-Webster]].<ref>[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=pepper va=pepper - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Furthermore, the word "pepper" is commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili peppers.
== Nutritional value ==
Red chilis contain high amounts of [[vitamin C]] and [[Carotene|provitamin A]]. Because of the high amount of vitamin C some South American athletes consume chili peppers before strenuous exercises. Yellow and especially green chilis (which are essentially unripe fruit) contain a considerably lower amount of both substances. In addition, peppers are a good source of most [[B vitamins]], and [[vitamin B6]] in particular. They are very high in [[potassium]] and high in [[magnesium]] and [[iron]]. Their high vitamin C content can also substantially increase the uptake of non-heme iron from other ingredients in a meal, such as [[bean]]s and [[grain]]s.
== Possible health benefits ==
All chili peppers contain [[phytochemicals]] known collectively as capsaicinoids.
* Capsaicin was shown, in laboratory settings, to cause [[cancer|cancer cell]] [[apoptosis]] in rats.<ref name="pmid17214968">{{cite journal |author=Athanasiou A, Smith PA, Vakilpour S, ''et al'' |title=Vanilloid receptor agonists and antagonists are mitochondrial inhibitors: how vanilloids cause non-vanilloid receptor mediated cell death |journal=Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. |volume=354 |issue=1 |pages=50–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17214968 |doi=10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.12.179}}</ref>
* Recent research in mice shows that chili (capsaicin in particular) may offer some hope of [[weight loss]] for people suffering from [[obesity]].<ref name="pmid17295509">{{cite journal |author=Hsu CL, Yen GC |title=Effects of capsaicin on induction of apoptosis and inhibition of adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1730–6 |year=2007 |pmid=17295509 |doi=10.1021/jf062912b}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nutraingredients-usa.com/news/ng.asp?id=74603-capsaicin-weight-management-obesityChilli extract may stop fat cell growth] By Stephen Daniells 3/1/2007</ref>
* Canadian researchers used capsaicin from chillies to kill nerve cells in the pancreases of mice with Type 1 [[diabetes]], thus allowing the insulin producing cells to start producing insulin again.<ref name="pmid17174891">{{cite journal |author=Razavi R, Chan Y, Afifiyan FN, ''et al'' |title=TRPV1+ sensory neurons control beta cell stress and islet inflammation in autoimmune diabetes |journal=Cell |volume=127 |issue=6 |pages=1123–35 |year=2006 |pmid=17174891 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2006.10.038}}</ref><ref>[http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=33922fce-3495-4dc6-9fb5-0dfc4ab5b7fc&k=50540 Chili extract makes diabetes go away]December 15, 2006 [[The Vancouver Sun]]</ref>
* Research in humans found that "after adding chili to the diet, the LDL, or bad cholesterol, actually resisted oxidation for a longer period of time, (delaying) the development of a major risk for cardiovascular disease".<ref>[http://www.dailyherald.com/story/?id=33273 Chili peppers can improve your health] 9/9/2007 [[Daily Herald]]</ref><ref name="pmid16923216">{{cite journal |author=Ahuja KD, Ball MJ |title=Effects of daily ingestion of chilli on serum lipoprotein oxidation in adult men and women |journal=Br. J. Nutr. |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=239–42 |year=2006 |pmid=16923216| doi = 10.1079/BJN20061788}}</ref>
* Australian researchers at the University of Tasmania found that the amount of [[insulin]] required to lower blood sugar after a meal is reduced if the meal contains chili pepper.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_7_170/ai_n16690548 |title=Blood sugar and spice Science News - Find Articles |accessdate=2007-09-19 |format= |work=}}</ref>
* Chilli peppers are being probed as a treatment for alleviating chronic pain.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4993576.stm |title=BBC NEWS | Health | Could chilli peppers relieve pain? |accessdate=2007-09-19 |format= |work=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/k2/moments/s341437.htm |title=Great Moments in Science - Chilli - Nuclear Food 3 |accessdate=2007-09-19 |format= |work=}}</ref>
* Spices, including chilli, are theorized to control the microbial contamination levels of food in countries with minimal or no refrigeration.<ref name="pmid9586227">{{cite journal |author=Billing J, Sherman PW |title=Antimicrobial functions of spices: why some like it hot |journal=The Quarterly review of biology |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=3–49 |year=1998 |pmid=9586227| doi = 10.1086/420058}}</ref>
* Hot peppers can provide symptomatic relief from [[rhinitis]] and possibly [[bronchitis]] by thinning and clearing [[mucus]] from stuffed noses or congested [[lungs]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
* Several studies found that capsaicin could have an anti-ulcer protective effect on stomachs infected with [[H. pylori]] by affecting the chemicals the stomach secretes in response to infection.<ref name="pmid17760719">{{cite journal |author=Lee IO, Lee KH, Pyo JH, Kim JH, Choi YJ, Lee YC |title=Anti-inflammatory effect of capsaicin in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells |journal=Helicobacter |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=510–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17760719 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-5378.2007.00521.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid16621751">{{cite journal
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| title=Bactericidal and anti-adhesive properties of culinary and medicinal plants against Helicobacter pylori
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* By combining an anesthetic with capsaicin, researchers can block pain in rat paws without causing temporary paralysis. This anesthetic may one day allow patients to be conscious during surgery and may also lead to the development of more effective chronic pain treatments.<ref name="pmid17914397">{{cite journal |author=Binshtok AM, Bean BP, Woolf CJ |title=Inhibition of nociceptors by TRPV1-mediated entry of impermeant sodium channel blockers |journal=Nature |volume=449 |issue=7162 |pages=607–10 |year=2007 |pmid=17914397 |doi=10.1038/nature06191}}</ref><ref name="cbss">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/03/health/webmd/main3327165.shtml|title=Using Hot Chili Peppers To Relieve Pain|accessdate=2007-10-20|publisher=CBS News|year=2007}}</ref>
== Possible health risks & precautions ==
* A high consumption of chili is associated with [[stomach cancer]].<ref name="pmid10830575">{{cite journal |author=Mathew A, Gangadharan P, Varghese C, Nair MK |title=Diet and stomach cancer: a case-control study in South India |journal=Eur. J. Cancer Prev. |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=89–97 |year=2000 |pmid=10830575| doi = 10.1097/00008469-200004000-00004}}</ref><ref name="pmid12800206">{{cite journal |author=López-Carrillo L, López-Cervantes M, Robles-Díaz G, ''et al'' |title=Capsaicin consumption, Helicobacter pylori positivity and gastric cancer in Mexico |journal=Int. J. Cancer |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=277–82 |year=2003 |pmid=12800206 |doi=10.1002/ijc.11195}}</ref><ref name="pmid12208187">{{cite journal |author=Archer VE, Jones DW |title=Capsaicin pepper, cancer and ethnicity |journal=Med. Hypotheses |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=450–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12208187| doi = 10.1016/S0306-9877(02)00152-4}}</ref><ref name="pmid8116601">{{cite journal |author=López-Carrillo L, Hernández Avila M, Dubrow R |title=Chili pepper consumption and gastric cancer in Mexico: a case-control study |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=139 |issue=3 |pages=263–71 |year=1994 |pmid=8116601 |doi=}}</ref>
* Chili powders may sometimes be adulterated with [[Sudan I]], II, III, IV, para-Red, and other illegal [[carcinogenic]] dyes.<ref name="pmid17713194">{{cite journal |author=Gajda J, Switka A, Kuźma K, Jarecka J |title=[Sudan and other illegal dyes--food adulteration] |language=Polish |journal=Roczniki Państwowego Zakładu Higieny |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=317–23 |year=2006 |pmid=17713194 |doi=}}</ref>
* [[Aflatoxin]]s and [[Nitrosamine|N-nitroso compounds]], which are [[carcinogenic]], are frequently found in chili powder.<ref name="pmid17365137">{{cite journal | author = Johnson, Wilbur|title=Final report on the safety assessment of capsicum annuum extract, capsicum annuum fruit extract, capsicum annuum resin, capsicum annuum fruit powder, capsicum frutescens fruit, capsicum frutescens fruit extract, capsicum frutescens resin, and capsaicin |journal=Int. J. Toxicol. |volume=26 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=3–106 |year=2007 |pmid=17365137 |doi=10.1080/10915810601163939}}</ref><ref name="pmid16192072">{{cite journal |author=Fazekas B, Tar A, Kovács M |title=Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content of spices in Hungary |journal=Food additives and contaminants |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=856–63 |year=2005 |pmid=16192072 |doi=10.1080/02652030500198027}}</ref><ref name="pmid11452374">{{cite journal |author=Vrabcheva TM |title=[Mycotoxins in spices] |language=Russian |journal=Voprosy pitaniia |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=40–3 |year=2000 |pmid=11452374 |doi=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11407753">{{cite journal |author=Reddy SV, Mayi DK, Reddy MU, Thirumala-Devi K, Reddy DV |title=Aflatoxins B1 in different grades of chillies (Capsicum annum L.) in India as determined by indirect competitive-ELISA |journal=Food additives and contaminants |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=553–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11407753| doi = 10.1080/02652030010025383}}</ref><ref name="pmid3349447">{{cite journal |author=Tricker AR, Siddiqi M, Preussmann R |title=Occurrence of volatile N-nitrosamines in dried chillies |journal=Cancer Lett. |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=271–3 |year=1988 |pmid=3349447| doi = 10.1016/0304-3835(88)90018-3}}</ref>
* Chronic ingestion of chili products may induce [[gastroesophageal reflux]] (GER).<ref name="pmid16699276">{{cite journal |author=Milke P, Diaz A, Valdovinos MA, Moran S |title=Gastroesophageal reflux in healthy subjects induced by two different species of chili (Capsicum annum) |journal=Digestive diseases (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=24 |issue=1-2 |pages=184–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16699276 |doi=10.1159/000090323}}</ref>
* Chili may increase the number of daily bowel movements and lower pain thresholds for people with [[irritable bowel syndrome]].<ref name="pmid12416746">{{cite journal |author=Agarwal MK, Bhatia SJ, Desai SA, Bhure U, Melgiri S |title=Effect of red chillies on small bowel and colonic transit and rectal sensitivity in men with irritable bowel syndrome |journal=Indian journal of gastroenterology : official journal of the Indian Society of Gastroenterology |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=179–82 |year=2002 |pmid=12416746 |doi=}}</ref>
* Chilis should never be swallowed whole; there are cases where unchewed chilis have caused bowel obstruction and perforation.<ref name="pmid11321857">{{cite journal |author=Rajaratnam SS, Boyle N, Owen WJ |title='Always chew your chillies': a report of small bowel obstruction with perforation |journal=Int. J. Clin. Pract. |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=146 |year=2001 |pmid=11321857 |doi=}}</ref>
* Consumption of red chilis after [[anal fissure]] surgery should be forbidden to avoid postoperative symptoms.<ref name="pmid17785979">{{cite journal |author=Gupta PJ |title=Red Hot Chili Consumption Is Harmful in Patients Operated for Anal Fissure - A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Study |journal= Digestive Surgery|volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=354–357 |year=2007 |pmid=17785979 |doi=10.1159/000107716}}</ref>
* Ingestion of even small amounts of hot chilis may temporarily aggravate the symptoms affecting [[hemorrhoid]] patients, such as pain, itching, and bleeding.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
* Consumption of chilis or other hot spices may aggravate inflammation of existing joint pain maladies, such as [[bursitis]] and [[gout]].{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
{{commonscat|Chile pepper}}
{{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}}
* [http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses]
* [http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/ The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop]
* [http://www.g6csy.net/chile/database.html Chile varieties database]
<!-- note: Filipinos eat chili pepper leaves as a leaf vegetable. -->
{{Herbs & spices}}
[[Category:Agriculture in Mesoamerica]]
[[Category:Chili peppers|*]]
[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Vegetable-like fruits]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Native crops of Mexico]]
[[Category:Native crops of Peru]]
[[Category:Symbols of New Mexico]]
[[ar:فلفل أحمر]]
[[bg:Люта чушка]]
[[cs:Chilli paprička]]
[[da:Chili (krydderi)]]
[[fr:Piment]]
[[hr:Čili]]
[[id:Cabai]]
[[la:Chili]]
[[hu:Csilipaprika]]
[[ms:Pokok Cili]]
[[nl:Chilipeper]]
[[ja:唐辛子]]
[[pl:Papryka chili]]
[[pt:Chili]]
[[ru:Красный перец]]
[[fi:Chili]]
[[sv:Chilipeppar]]
[[th:พริก]]
[[vi:Ớt]]
[[ur:مرچ]]