Chinese ceramics 4237048 225495752 2008-07-14T00:19:02Z Melesse 200177 replacing image with version on commons {{dablink|For the western world usage of china, see [[porcelain]]}} {{Mergefrom|Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte|Talk:Chinese ceramics#Merger proposal|date=April 2008}} [[Image:Chrysanthemum porcelain vase with three colors.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Chrysanthemum]] styled porcelain vase with three colors from the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368-1644 AD) at the [[National Museum of China]]]] '''Chinese ceramics''' is a form of [[fine art]] developed since the [[Dynasties in Chinese history|dynastic periods]]. [[China]] has always been richly endowed with the raw materials needed for making [[ceramic]]s. The first types were made about 11,000 years ago, during the [[List of Palaeolithic sites in China|Palaeolithic]] era. Chinese Ceramics range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles to hand-built [[pottery]] vessels fired in bonfires or kilns to the sophisticated porcelain wares made for the imperial court. ==Introduction== ===Terminology=== The Chinese term for [[porcelain]] (Chinese: 瓷, cí) covers a wide range of high-fired ceramics, some of which may not be recognized as porcelain by Western definitions. Porcelain is usually ''green-fired'' or ''once-fired'', which means that the body and the [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]] are fired together. After the body of a piece is formed and finished it is dried, coated with a glaze, dried again and fired. In the high temperature of the [[kiln]] the body and the glaze are fused together to become a unit. Chinese [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]]led wares are also produced in this way, except enamels are added after the first high-temperature firing. The pieces are then fired again in a second round via a smaller, lower-temperature kiln. ===Categories=== [[Image:Song Dynasty Porcelain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A qingbai porcelain vase, bowl, and model of a [[granary]] with transparent blue-toned glaze, from the period of the [[Song Dynasty]] (960-1279 AD).]] The Chinese tradition recognises only two primary categories of ceramics, high-fired [cí 瓷] and low-fired [táo 匋] <ref name="Pierson 1996">Pierson, Stacey, (1996). ''Earth, Fire and Water: Chinese Ceramic Technology.'' Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, University of London. ISBN 0-7286-0265-2.</ref>. The [[Erya|oldest Chinese dictionaries]] define porcelain [cí 瓷] as "fine, compact pottery" [táo 匋] <ref name="Bushell 1977">Bushell, S. W. (1977) ''Chinese Pottery and Porcelain.'' Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur. ISBN 0-19-580372-8.</ref>. In the West the property of [[Transparency (optics)|translucence]] is often regarded as a defining feature of porcelain, but this is not the case in China, where any thick or [[Opacity (optics)|opaque]] piece that rings with a reasonably clear note on being struck would be regarded as porcelain [cí 瓷] <ref name="Bushell 1977"/>. Chinese ceramic wares are also classified as being either ''northern'' or ''southern''. Present-day China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by the action of continental drift and forming a junction that lies between the [[Yellow river]] and the [[Yangtze river]]. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics. === Materials === Chinese porcelain is mainly made by the following two materials or a combination of the two. Both rocks derive from the weathering and decomposition of [[granitic]] [[rock (geology)|rock]]s. * '''''China clay''''' / ''(Gaoling)'' - composed largely of the clay mineral [[kaolinite]]. * '''''Pottery stone''''' - are [[micaceous]] or [[feldspathic|feldspar]] [[Rock (geology)|rocks]]. Historically they were also known as [[petunse]].<ref name="Kerr and Wood 2004">Kerr, Rose and Wood, Nigel (2004). ''Science and Civilisation in China,'' Volume 5, Part XII: Ceramic Technology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83833-9.</ref>. == History == ===Defining ceramics=== [[Image:Presentaion 1.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Ming presentation porcelain]], from the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368&ndash;1644).]] In the context of Chinese ceramics the term ''porcelain'' lacks a universally accepted definition. This in turn has led to confusion about when the first Chinese porcelain was made. Claims have been made for the late [[Eastern Han Dynasty|Eastern Han]] period (100 to 200 AD), the [[Three Kingdoms]] period (220 to 280 AD), the [[Six Dynasties]] period (220 to 589 AD), and the [[Tang Dynasty]] (618 to 906 AD). ===Early wares=== Fragments of pottery vessels dating from around the year 9000 BC found at the [[Xianrendong]] (Spirit Cave) site, [[Wannian County]], in the province of [[Jiangxi]] represent some of the earliest known Chinese ceramics. The wares were hand-made by [[coil]]ing and fired in [[bonfire]]s. Decorations include impressed cord marks, and features produced by stamping and by piercing. The Xianrendong site was occupied from about 9000 BC to about 4000 BC. During this period two types of pottery were made. The first consisted of coarse-bodied wares possibly intended for everyday use. The second being finer, thinner-bodied wares possibly intended for ritual use or special occasions. There is archaeological evidence suggesting that both types of wares were produced at the same time at some point. ===Han dynasty=== Some experts believe the first true porcelain was made in the [[Province (China)|province]] of [[Zhejiang]] during the Eastern Han period. Chinese experts emphasize the presence of a significant proportion of porcelain-building minerals (china clay, porcelain stone or a combination of both) as an important factor in defining ''porcelain''. [[Sherd|Shards]] recovered from archaeological Eastern Han kiln sites estimated firing temperature ranged from 1260 to 1300[[Celsius|°C]]<ref name="He Li 1996">He Li, (1996). ''Chinese Ceramics. The New Standard Guide''. Thames and Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-23727-1.</ref>. As far back as 1000 BC, the so-called ''"Porcelaneous wares"'' or ''"proto-porcelain wares"'' were made using at least some [[kaolin]] fired at high temperatures. The dividing the line between the two and ''true porcelain wares'' is not a clear one. ===Sui and Tang dynasty=== [[Image:Song Dynasty Porcelain Bottle.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Song Dynasty]] porcelain bottle with iron pigment over transparent colorless glaze, 11th century.]] During the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] periods (581 to 907) a wide range of ceramics, low-fired and high-fired, were produced. These included the well-known Tang lead-glazed ''sancai'' (three-colour) wares, the high-firing, lime-glazed ''Yue'' celadon wares and low-fired wares from ''Changsha''. In northern China, high-fired, translucent porcelains were made at kilns in the provinces of [[Henan]] and [[Hebei]]. One of the first mentions of porcelain by a foreigner was made by an [[Arabian]] traveler during the [[Tang Dynasty]] who recorded that: ::{{cquote|''"They have in China a very fine clay with which they make vases which are as transparent as glass; water is seen through them. The vases are made of clay"'' <ref name="Bushell 1906">Bushell, S. W. (1906). ''Chinese Art''. Victoria and Albert Museum Art Handbook, His Majesty's Stationery Office, London.</ref>.}} The Arabs were aware of the materials necessary to create glass ware, and he was certain it was not the usual glass material. ===Song and Yuan dynasty=== The city of [[Jingdezhen]] (also Jingde Zhen) has been a central place of production since the early Han Dynasty. In 1004 [[Emperor Zhenzong of Song|Jingde]] established the city as the main production hub for Imperial porcelain. During the [[Song Dynasty|Song]] and [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] dynasties, porcelain made in the city and other [[southern China]] kiln sites used crushed and refined porcelain stones alone. ===Qing dynasty=== Two letters written by [[Père d'Entrecolles|Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles]], a [[Jesuit]] missionary and industrial [[spy]] who lived and worked in Jingdezhen in the early eighteenth century, described in detail manufacturing of porcelain in the city, see: <ref name="letters">[http://www.ceramicstoday.com/articles/entrecolles.htm Two letters written by Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles] at Ceramics Today.com</ref>. In his first letter dating 1712, d'Entrecolles described the way in which porcelain stones were crushed, refined and formed into little white bricks, known in Chinese as ''[[petuntse]]''. He then went on to describe the refining of china clay ''[[kaolin]]'' along with the developmental stages of glazing and firing. He explained his motives: ::{{cquote| Nothing but my curiosity could ever have prompted me to such researches, but it appears to me that a minute description of all that concerns this kind of work might, be useful in Europe.}} In 1743, during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]], Tang Ying, the imperial supervisor in the city produced a memoir entitled ''"Twenty illustrations of the manufacture of porcelain."'' Unfortunately, the original illustrations have been lost, but the text of the memoir is still accessible<ref name="memoir">[http://www.seattleartmuseum.org/Exhibit/Archive/porcelainstories/process/process.htm Tang Ying's "Twenty illustrations of the manufacture of porcelain."] at the [[Seattle Art Museum]]</ref>. Jingdezhen became the main production centre for large-scale [[Chinese export porcelain|porcelain exports to Europe]] starting with the reign of the [[Wanli]] emperor from 1572 to 1620. <!-- and finished when the Europeans finally found porcelain quality clay in Germany? --> By this time china clay and porcelain stone were mixed in about equal proportions. China clay produced wares of great strength when added to the body layer. Whiteness became a much sought after property, especially when combined to form blue-and-white wares. Porcelain stone was used with lower temperature of 1250[[Celsius|°C]] in the region. Compared to those mixed with china clay, which required 1350°C. The large southern egg-shaped kiln varied greatly in temperature. Near the firebox it was hot. Near the chimney, at the opposite end of the kiln, it was cooler. == Chinese porcelain wares == [[Image:Tang horse.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Tang Dynasty]] (618&ndash;907) ''sancai'' horse at the [[Shanghai Museum]]]] ===Tang ''Sancai'' burial wares=== {{main|Sancai}} ''Sancai'' means ''three-colours''. However, the colours of the glazes used to decorate the wares of the Tang dynasty were not limited to three in number. In the West, Tang sancai wares were sometimes referred to as ''egg-and-spinach'' by dealers for the use of green, yellow and white. Though the latter of the two colours might be more properly described as ''amber'' and ''off-white'' / ''cream''. Sancai wares were northern wares made using white and buff-firing secondary kaolins and [[fire clay]]s <ref name="Wood 1999">Wood, Nigel (1999). ''Chinese Glazes''. A.C. Black, London. ISBN 0-7136-3837-0.</ref>. At kiln sites located at [[Tongchuan, Shaanxi|Tongchuan]], Neiqui county in [[Hebei]] and Gongxian in [[Henan]] <ref name="Wood 1999"/>, the clays used for burial wares were similar to those used by Tang [[potter]]s. The burial wares were fired at a lower temperature than contemporaneous whitewares. Burial wares, such as the well-known representations of camels and horses, were cast in sections, in [[mould]]s with the parts luted together using clay slip. In some cases, a degree of individuality was imparted to the assembled figurines by hand-carving. [[Image:jian bowl.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Song Dynasty]] Jian tea bowl at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]] === Jian tea wares === Jian blackwares, mainly comprising tea wares, were made at kilns located in [[Jianyang]] of [[Fujian]] province. They reached the peak of their popularity during the Song dynasty. The wares were made using locally-won, iron-rich clays and fired in an [[Redox|oxidising]] atmosphere at temperatures in the region of 1300°C. The glaze was made using clay similar to that used for forming the body, except fluxed with wood-ash. At high temperatures the molten glaze separate to produce a pattern called ''hare's fur''. When Jian wares were set tilted for firing, drips run down the side, creating evidence of liquid glaze pooling. The ''hare's fur'' Jian tea bowl illustrated in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in [[New York]] was made during the Song dynasty (960 to 1279 AD) and exhibits the typical pooling, or thickening, of the glaze near the bottom. The ''hare's fur'' patterning in the glaze of this bowl resulted from the random effect of phase separation during early cooling in the kiln and is unique to this bowl. No two bowls have identical patterning. The bowl also has a dark brown ''iron-foot'' which is typical of this style. It would have been fired, probably with several thousand other other pieces, each in its own stackable [[Saggar fired pottery|saggar]], in a single-firing in a large [[Anagama kiln#Kiln variants|dragon kiln]]. One such kiln, built on the side of a steep hill, was almost 150 metres in length, though most Jian dragon kilns were fewer than 100 metres in length. An 11th century resident of Fujian wrote: ::{{cquote| Tea is of light colour and looks best in black cups. The cups made at Jianyang are bluish-black in colour, marked like the fur of a hare. Being of rather thick fabric they retain the heat, so that when once warmed through they cool very slowly, and they are additionally valued on this account. None of the cups produced at other places can rival these. Blue and white cups are not used by those who give tea-tasting parties. <ref name="Bushell 1977"/>.}} Jian tea wares of the Song dynasty were greatly appreciated and copied in [[Japan]], where they were known as [[tenmoku]] wares. [[Phase separation]] in the iron-rich glazes of Chinese blackwares was also used to produce the well-known ''oil-spot'', ''teadust'' and ''partridge-feather'' glaze effects. [[Image:Qingbai.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Song Dynasty]] ''qingbai'' bowl]] === Qingbai wares === Qingbai wares (also called yingqing<ref>Wood, Nigel, ''Chinese Glazes''</ref>) were made at Jingdezhen and at many other southern kilns from the time of the [[Northern Song Dynasty]] until they were eclipsed in the 14th century by underglaze-decorated blue and white wares. Qingbai in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] literally means "clear blue-white". The qingbai glaze is a ''porcelain glaze'', so-called because it was made using porcelain stone. The qingbai glaze is clear, but contains [[iron]] in small amounts. When applied over a white porcelain body the glaze produces a greenish-blue colour that gives the glaze its name. Some have incised or moulded decorations. The Song dynasty qingbai bowl illustrated was likely made at the Jingdezhen village of [[Hutian]], which was also the site of the Imperial kilns established in the year 1004. The bowl has incised decoration, possibly representing clouds or the reflection of clouds in the water. The body is white, translucent and has the texture of very-fine [[sugar]], indicating that it was made using crushed and refined porcelain stone instead of porcelain stone and china clay. The glaze and the body of the bowl would have been fired together, in a [[Saggar fired pottery|saggar]], possibly in a large wood-burning dragon-kiln or [[Anagama kiln#Kiln variants|climbing-kiln]], typical of southern kilns in the period. Though many Song and Yuan qingbai bowls were fired upside down in special segmented saggars, a technique first developed at the [[Ding Ware|Ding]] kilns in [[Hebei]] province. The rims of such wares were left unglazed but were often bound with bands of [[silver]], [[copper]] or [[lead]]. One remarkable example of ''qingbai'' porcelain is the so-called ''Fonthill Vase'', described in a guide for [[Fonthill Abbey]] published in 1823 ::{{cquote|''"...an oriental china bottle, superbly mounted, said to be the earliest known specimen of porcelain introduced into Europe"}} The vase was made at Jingdezhen, probably around the year 1300 and was sent as a present to [[Pope Benedict XII]] by one of the last [[List of Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty|Yuan emperors]] of China, in 1338. The mounts referred to in the 1823 description were of enamelled silver-gilt and were added to the vase in Europe in 1381. An 18th century water colour of the vase complete with its mounts exists, but the mounts themselves were removed and lost in the 19th century. The vase is now in the [[National Museum of Ireland]]. It is often held that ''qingbai'' wares were not subject to the higher standards and regulations of the other porcelain wares, since they were made for everyday use. They were mass-produced, and received little attention from scholars and [[antiquarian]]s. The Fonthill Vase, given by a Chinese emperor to a pope, might appear to cast at least some doubt on this view. === Blue and white wares === [[Image:Status of Kuan Yin.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Guan Yin]], Ming Dynasty ([[Shanghai Museum]])]] [[Image:Dehua tripod.jpg|thumb|Tripod Early 17th Century, Nantoyōsō Collection, Japan]] === Blanc de Chine === {{main|Blanc de Chine}} ''Blanc de Chine'' is a type of white porcelain made at [[Dehua]] in the [[Fujian]] province. It has been produced from the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368-1644) to the present day. Large quantities arrived in [[Europe]] as [[Chinese Export Porcelain]] in the early 18th century and it was copied at [[Meissen]] and elsewhere. The area along the Fujian coast was traditionally one of the main ceramic exporting centers. Over one-hundred and eighty kiln sites have been identified extending in historical range from the Song period to present. From the Ming period porcelain objects were manufactured that achieved a fusion of glaze and body traditionally referred to as "ivory white" and "milk white." The special characteristic of Dehua porcelain is the very small amount of iron oxide in it, allowing it to be fired in an oxidising atmosphere to a warm white or pale ivory color. (Wood, 2007) The porcelain body is not very plastic but vessel forms have been made from it. Donnelly, (1969, pp.xi-xii) lists the following types of product: figures, boxes, vases and jars, cups and bowls, fishes, lamps, cup-stands, censers and flowerpots, animals, brush holders, wine and teapots, [[Buddhist]] and [[Taoist]] figures, secular figures and puppets. There was a large output of figures, especially religious figures, e.g. [[Guanyin]], [[Maitreya]], [[Arhat|Lohan]] and [[Ta-mo]] figures. The numerous Dehua porcelain factories today make figures and tableware in modern styles. During the [[Cultural Revolution]] “Dehua artisans applied their very best skills to produce immaculate statuettes of the Great Leader and the heroes of the revolution. Portraits of the stars of the new proletarian opera in their most famous roles were produced on a truly massive scale.” (Ayers and Bingling, 2002) [[Mao]] figures later fell out of favor but have been revived for foreign collectors. Notable artists in ''blanc de Chine'', such as the late Ming period [[He Chaozong]], signed their creations with their seals. Wares include crisply modeled figures, [[Drinkware|cups]], bowls and joss stick-holders. Many of the best examples of ''blanc de Chine'' are found in Japan where the white variety was termed ''hakugorai'' or "Korean white", a term often found in [[tea ceremony]] circles. The [[British Museum]] in London has a large number of ''blanc de Chine'' pieces, having received as a gift in 1980 the entire collection of P.J.Donnelly. (Harrison-Hall, 2001) == Fakes and reproductions == [[Image:Kangxi mark.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kangxi reign mark on a piece of late nineteenth century blue and white porcelain.]] [[Image:Mid15thCenturyPotteryNorthernItaly.jpg|thumb|200px|Italian pottery of the mid-15th century shows heavy influences from Chinese ceramics. A Sancai ("Three colors") plate (left), and a [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]-type blue-and-white vase (right), made in Northern Italy, mid-15th century. [[Musée du Louvre]].]] Chinese potters have a long tradition of borrowing design and decorative features from earlier wares. Whilst ceramics with features thus borrowed might sometimes pose problems of [[provenance]], they would not generally be regarded as either reproductions or fakes. However, fakes and reproductions have also been made at many times during the long history of Chinese ceramics and continue to be made today in ever-increasing numbers. * Reproductions of Song dynasty [[Longquan celadon]] wares were made at Jingdezhen in the early 18th century, but outright fakes were also made using special clay that were artificially aged by boiling in meat [[broth]], refiring and storage in [[sewer]]s. Père d'Entrecolles records that by this means the wares could be passed off as being hundreds of years old<ref name="letters">[http://www.ceramicstoday.com/articles/entrecolles.htm Two letters written by Père Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles] at Ceramics Today.com</ref>. * At Jingdezhen the two remaining wood fired, egg-shaped kilns produce convincing reproductions of earlier wares. At Zhejiang province good reproductions of Song Longquan celedon wares continue to be made in large, side-stoked dragon kilns.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} * Before [[World War II]], the English potter [[Bernard Leach]] found what he took to be genuine Song dynasty ''cizhou'' rice-bowls being sold for very little money on the dock of a Chinese port and was surprised to learn that they were in fact newly made.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} * In modern times the market for Song dynasty ''Jian'' tea-bowls has been severely depressed by the appearance in large numbers of modern fakes good enough to deceive even expert collectors. It is reported that some of these fakes show evidence of having had genuine Song dynasty ''iron-foot'' bases grafted onto newly made bodies.<!--source?-->{{Fact|date=December 2007}} * In the late 19th century fakes of Kangxi period ''famille noire'' wares were made that were convincing enough to deceive the experts of the day. Many such pieces may still be seen in museums today, as may pieces of genuine Kangxi porcelain decorated in the late nineteenth century with ''famille noire'' enamels. A body of modern expert opinion holds that porcelain decorated with ''famille noire'' enamels was not made at all during the Kangxi period, though this view is disputed <ref name="de Boulay 1973">de Boulay, Anthony (1973). ''Chinese Porcelain''. Octopus Books, London. ISBN 0-7064-0045-3</ref>. * A fashion for Kangxi period (1662 to 1722) blue and white wares grew to large proportions in Europe during the later years of the 19th century and triggered the production at Jingdezhen of large quantities of porcelain wares that strike a resemblance to ceramics of earlier periods. Such blue and white wares were not fakes or even convincing reproductions, even though some pieces carried four-character Kangxi reign-marks that continue to cause confusion to this day. Kangxi reign-marks in the form shown in the illustration occur only on wares made towards the end of the 19th century or later, without exception.<!-- who is to say modern day fakes can't have a fake mark? Note: "or later". --> ==Authentication== The most widely-known test is the [[thermoluminescence]] test, or TL test, which is used on some types of ceramic to estimate, roughly, the date of last firing. The TL test is carried out on small samples of porcelain drilled or cut from the body of a piece, which can be risky and disfiguring. For this reason, the test is rarely used for dating finely-potted, high-fired ceramics. TL testing cannot be used at all on some types of porcelain items, particularly high-fired porcelain<!-- because... ? -->.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} ==Gallery== ===Early wares=== <gallery> Image:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - water jar.jpg|Water jar from the Neolithic period, [[Yangshao]] culture (ca. 5000 - 3000 BC) Image:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - painted jar.jpg|Painted jar of the [[Majiayao culture]], Late Neolithic period (3300 - 2200 BC) Image:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - black pottery goblet.jpg|Black pottery goblet of the Late Neolithic period from the [[Longshan]] culture, dated (ca. 2500 - 2000 BC) Image:CMOC Treasures of Ancient China exhibit - large grey mug.jpg|Large grey mug, Henan Longshan culture, Late Neolithic period (ca. 2500 - 2000 BC) Image:ZhouVase.JPG|Earthenware vase, [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou]], 4th-3rd century BC. [[British Museum]]. Image:Servante Han Guimet 2910.jpg|Ceramic sculptures with [[polychrome]], from the 2nd century BC, [[Han Dynasty]]. Image:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 072.jpg|An earthenware goose pourer with lacquerware paint designs, [[Western Han]], late 3rd century BC to early 1st century AD Image:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 123.jpg|[[Terra cotta]] serving ladies from the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]], 4th to 6th centuries </gallery> ===Tang (618 to 906 AD)=== <gallery> Image:Earthenware tomb figure with sancai glaze 1 CAC.JPG|[[Sancai]] glazed earthenware tomb figurine from the 7th-8th century Image:SancaiHorseTang7-8thCentury.JPG|A sancai glazed pottery horse from the 7th-8th century Image:Coupe quadrilobée Dynastie Tang Musée Guimet 2418.jpg|9th century [[sandstone]] porcelain dish with four lobes and fish design Image:Westerner on a camel.jpg|A Western on a [[Bactrian Camel]], a [[sancai]] glazed figurine from the [[Tang Dynasty]] Image:Plat rond Dynastie Tang Musée Guimet 2418.jpg|A rounded ceramic plate with "three colors" glaze and floral design, 8th-9th century. Image:Plat à offrandes Chine Musée Guimet 2418 1.jpg|A rounded ceramic plate with "three colors" glaze, 8th century. Image:Plat à offrandes Chine Musée Guimet 2418 2.jpg|A ceramic offering plate with "three colors" glaze, decorated with a bird and trees, 8th century. Image:Plat à offrandes Chine Musée Guimet 2418 3.jpg|A ceramic offering plate with six eaves and "three colors" glaze, 8th century. </gallery> ===Song (960 to 1279 AD)=== <gallery> Image:Ru_Ware.JPG| ''Ru'' ware stand for a wine cup, made for the imperial court. [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]. Image:B-Qingbai-Kanne.JPG|A porcelain teapot in Qingbai Style, from [[Jingdezhen]]. Image:Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst Dahlem Berlin Mai 2006 043.jpg|Funerary vase and cover, green-glazed [[stoneware]]. Longquan, [[Zhejiang]] province, Northern Song dynasty. 10th or 11th century C.E. Image:Song Dynasty Celadon Vase.jpg|A [[Longquan celadon]] vase from the Song Dynasty Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231104.jpg|A fu dog statue, [[celadon]], 11th-12th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231103.jpg|A [[celadon]] bowl, 10th-11th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 241101.jpg|[[Longquan celadon]] wares, 13th century. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231102.jpg|A celadon plate, 10th-11th century. </gallery> ===Yuan (1279 to 1368 AD)=== <gallery> Image:FFM-SeladonTopf02.JPG|A [[celadon]] shoulder pot from the late Yuan Dynasty, displaying artwork of peaches, lotuses, peonies, willows, and palms. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 231106.jpg|Qingbai porcelain vase, 14th century. Image:Coupe lobée Musée Guimet 2418.jpg|A [[Jin Dynasty, 1115-1234|Jin]] or Yuan dynasty [[stoneware]] dish, 13th-14th century. Image:Celadon dish with applied dragon design.JPG|[[Longquan celadon]], 13th-14th century. Image:Yuan celadon bowl with modeled dragon design.JPG|Longquan celadon bowl with a dragon Image:Palace kitchens Topkapi 2007 011.jpg|Celadon dish with a flower design </gallery> ===Ming (1368 to 1644 AD)=== <gallery> Image:Ming-Schale1.jpg|A Ming Dynasty blue-and-white procelain dish with depiction of a dragon Image:B-Dehua-Guanyin.JPG|[[Guanyin]] (Goddess of Mercy) with children, statuette made of [[Blanc de Chine|Dehua porcelain ware]] Image:Ming bowl.jpg|A Ming Dynasty porcelain bowl with flower designs Image:He Chaozong 1.JPG|A [[bodhisattva]] [[manjusri]] sitting atop a beast, by [[He Chaozong]] Image:B-Mingteller.JPG|Ming Dynasty porcelain dish with design of tree branches, leaves, and a floral border design Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 261101.jpg|Porcelain vase from the reign of the [[Jiajing Emperor]] (1521&ndash;1567). Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 271102.jpg|Porcelain plate from 1634, during the [[Chongzhen Emperor]] (1627&ndash;1644) Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 271108.jpg|Porcelain vase from the reign of the Jiajing Emperor (1521&ndash;1567). </gallery> ===Qing (1644 to 1912 AD)=== <gallery> Image:Qing vase p1070256.jpg|Qing style at [[Stanford Museum]] Image:DD-Famrose-Teller02.JPG|A porcelain plate in the famille-rose-style Image:Kangxi - Nantoyousou Collection.jpg|[[Kangxi transitional porcelain]], 1644-1680. Image:Kangxi transitional porcelain Bowl.jpg|[[Kangxi transitional porcelain]], 1644-1680. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 271101.jpg|Porcelain plate from the reign of the [[Kangxi Emperor]] (1661&ndash;1722) Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 281109.jpg|Porcelain vase from the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (1661&ndash;1722) Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 291101.jpg|Porcelain figure of a European man on horseback. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 291106.jpg|Porcelain plate from the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]] (1735&ndash;1796) </gallery> ===Republic and People's Republic (1912, to date)=== <gallery> Image:Porcelain Workshop, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi, China.jpg|Decorating porcelain at modern-day Jingdezhen. </gallery> ==See also== {{Commonscat|Chinese porcelain}} * [[Chinese art]] * [[Blanc-de-Chine]] (the white wares of Dehua). * [[Canton porcelain]] (Jingdezhen porcelain decorated at Canton for export to the West). * [[Chinese export porcelain]] (Chinese porcelain made for export to the West). * [[Dehua porcelain factories]] (the factories at Dehua). * [[Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte]] (enamelled wares of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries). * [[Kraak porcelain]] (blue and white export wares in the Dutch taste). * [[Longquan Celadon]] (the celadon wares of Longquan county). * [[Swatow ware]] (wares exported through the port of Swatow). * [[Yixing clay]] (the red stonewares of Yixing). * [[Tiger Cave Kiln]] (site of much of Southern Song official celadon ware) * [[Shiwan Ware]] ==References== {{reflist}} <!-- Unused references *{{cite book |last=Fuchs II |first=Ron W. |title=Made in China: Export Porcelain from the Leo and Doris Hodroff Collection at Winterthur |year=2005 |publisher=Winterthur |location=Winterthur, DE }} ISBN 0-912724-26-9--> ==Bibilography== *Ayers, J. and Bingling, Y., (2002) ''Blanc de Chine: Divine Images in Porcelain'', China Institute, New York *Ayers, J and Kerr, R., (2000), ''Blanc de Chine Porcelain from Dehua'', Art Media Resources Ltd. *Donnelly, P.J. (1969), ''Blanc de Chine'', Faber and Faber, London *Harrison-Hall, J. (2001), ''Ming Ceramics in the British Museum'', British Museum, London *Kerr, Rose and Wood, Nigel (2004). ''Science and Civilisation in China,'' Volume 5, Part XII: Ceramic Technology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83833-9. * Kotz, Suzanne (ed.) (1989) ''Imperial Taste. Chinese Ceramics from the Percival David Foundation.'' Chronicle Books, San Francisco. ISBN 0-87701-612-7. *Moujian, S., (1986) ''An Encyclopedia of Chinese Art'', p. 292. *Wood, N. (2007), ''Chinese Glazes: Their Chemistry, Origins and Re-creation'', A & C Black, London, and University of Pennsylvania Press, USA [[Category:Chinese porcelain|*]] [[Category:Chinese art|Chinese pottery]] [[Category:Arts in China|Chinese pottery]] [[de:Chinesisches Porzellan]] [[es:Cerámica china]] [[fa:چینی]] [[fr:Céramique chinoise]] [[pt:Cerâmica da China]]