Chinese character classification
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220723911
2008-06-21T07:25:42Z
Kwamikagami
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[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 220712145 by [[Special:Contributions/121.223.230.226|121.223.230.226]] ([[User talk:121.223.230.226|talk]])-half redundant, d not belong in intro
{{Cleanup|date=June 2008}}
All '''[[Chinese character]]''' are [[logogram]]s, but there are several derivative types. These include a handful which are [[pictogram|pictographic]] (象形 [[pinyin]]: ''xiàngxíng)'' in origin, and a number which are [[ideogram|ideographic]] (指事 ''zhǐshì)'' in origin, but the vast majority originated as [[phonetic complement|phono]]-[[Determinative|semantic]] compounds (形聲 ''xíngshēng).'' In older literature, Chinese characters in general may be referred to as ideograms, due to the misconception that characters represent ideas directly, whereas in fact they do so only through association with the spoken word (Hansen 1993).
==Traditional classification==
Traditional Chinese [[lexicography]] divided characters into six categories (六書 ''liùshū'' "Six Writings"), which are described below. This classification is often attributed to [[Xu Shen]]'s [[2nd century|second century]] dictionary ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]],'' but it has been dated earlier. The first mention is in the work ''[[Zhou Li]]'' of the late [[Zhou dynasty]], and the six types are listed in the ''[[Hanshu]]'' of the first century CE, and in Zheng Zhong (鄭眾) quoted by Zheng Xuan (鄭玄) in his first-century commentary of ''Zhou Li,'' although the details vary. The traditional classification is still taught but is no longer the focus of modern lexicographic practice. Some categories are not clearly defined, nor are they mutually exclusive: the first four refer to structural composition, while the last two refer to usage. For this reason, some modern scholars view them as six principles of character formation rather than six types of characters.
The earliest significant, extant corpus of Chinese characters is found on turtle shells and the bones of livestock, chiefly the [[scapula]] of oxen, for use in [[pyromancy]], a form of divination. These ancient characters are called [[oracle bone script]]. Roughly a quarter of these characters are pictograms while the rest are either phono-semantic compounds or compound ideograms. Despite millennia of change in shape, usage and meaning, a few of these characters remain recognizable to the modern reader of Chinese.
At present, more than 90% of Chinese characters are phono-semantic compounds, constructed out of elements intended provide clues to both the meaning and the pronunciation. However, as both the meanings and pronunciations of the characters have changed over time, these components are no longer reliable guides to either meaning or pronunciation. The failure to recognize the historical and etymological role of these components often leads to misclassification and [[folk etymology]]. A study of the earliest sources (the oracle bones script and the Zhou-dynasty [[bronze script]]) is often necessary for an understanding of the true composition and etymology of any particular character. Reconstructing [[Middle Chinese|Middle]] and [[Old Chinese]] phonology from the clues present in characters is part of Chinese [[historical linguistics]]. In Chinese, it is called ''[[Historical Chinese phonology|Yinyunxue]]'' (音韻學 "Studies of sounds and rimes").
=== Pictograms ===
*象形 ''xiàng xíng'' "form imitation"
Roughly 600 Chinese characters are pictograms—stylised drawings of the objects they represent. These are generally among the oldest characters. A few, indicated below with their earliest forms, date back to oracle bones from the twelfth century BCE.
These pictograms became progressively more stylized and lost their pictographic flavor, especially as they made the transition from the oracle bone script to the [[Seal Script]] of the [[Eastern Zhou]], but also to a lesser extent in the transition to the [[clerical script]] of the [[Han Dynasty]]. The table below summarises the evolution of a few Chinese pictographic characters. Where no modern simplified form is provided, it is identical to the traditional character.
<div class="interbox">
{| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" width="100%"
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Oracle Bone Script]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Seal Script]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Clerical Script]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Semi-Cursive Script]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Cursive Script]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Regular Script]] ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]])'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Regular Script]] ([[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''[[Pinyin]]'''
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | '''Meaning'''
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ri Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:rì|rì]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Sun]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuue Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:yuè|yuè ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Moon]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shan Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:shān|shān]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Mountain]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Shui Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:shuǐ|shuǐ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Water]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yuu Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:yǔ|yǚ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Rain]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu4 Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:mù|mù]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Wood]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character He Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:hé|hé]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Rice|Rice Plant]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ren Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:rén|rén ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Man]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Cur.svg]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Nuu Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:nǚ|nǚ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Woman]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Mu Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:mǔ|mǔ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Mother]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Eye Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:mù|mù]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Eye]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niu Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:niú|niú]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Cow]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Yang Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | —
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:yáng|yáng]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Goat]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Ma Simp.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:mǎ|mǎ]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Horse]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Niao Simp.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:niǎo|niǎo]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Bird]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Gui Simp.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:guī|guī]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Tortoise]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Long Simp.png]]
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:lóng|lóng]]</font>
| bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Chinese Dragon]]</font>
|-----
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Oracle.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Seal.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Cler.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Semi.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Cur.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Trad.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | [[Image:Character Feng Simp.png]]
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[wikt:fèng|fèng]]</font>
| bgcolor="#DFDFDF" valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="3">[[Chinese Phoenix]]</font>
|}
</div>
N.B.:
* 女 ''nǚ'' is a stylised drawing of a woman kneeling in profile. In the oracle bone, bronze and seal scripts, the torso vertically bisects the crossed arms; in the clerical and standard scripts, the graph is rotated 90 degrees counterclockwise so that the hands, not the feet, are pointed downward.
* 水 ''shuǐ'' "water" represents the lines of a flowing river.
=== Ideograms ===
*指事 ''zhǐ shì'' "indication"
Ideograms express an abstract idea through an [[iconic]] form, including iconic modification of pictographic characters. In the examples below, low numerals are represented by the appropriate number of strokes, directions by an iconic indication above and below a line, and the parts of a tree by marking the appropriate part of a pictogram of a tree.
<center>
{| border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="4"
|-----
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | '''Character'''
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"> <br>一</font>
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>二</font>
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>三</font>
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>上</font>
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>下</font>
| width="60" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>本</font>
| width="61" height="60" valign="middle" | <font size="6"><br>末</font>
|-----
| width="60" valign="middle" | '''Pinyin'''
| width="60" valign="middle" | yī
| width="60" valign="middle" | èr
| width="60" valign="middle" | sān
| width="60" valign="middle" | shàng
| width="60" valign="middle" | xià
| width="60" valign="middle" | běn
| width="61" valign="middle" | mò
|-----
| width="60" valign="middle" | '''Gloss'''
| width="60" valign="middle" | one
| width="60" valign="middle" | two
| width="60" valign="middle" | three
| width="60" valign="middle" | up
| width="60" valign="middle" | below
| width="60" valign="middle" | root
| width="61" valign="middle" | apex
|}
</center>
N.B.:
* 本 ''běn'', "root" - a tree (木 ''mù'') with the base indicated by an extra stroke.
* 末 ''mò'', "apex" - the reverse of 本 (''běn''), a tree with the top highlighted by an extra stroke.
=== Ideogrammic compounds ===
*會意 ''huì yì'' "joined meaning"
In ideogrammic compounds, also called ''associative compounds'' or ''logical aggregates,'' two or more pictographic or ideographic characters are combined to suggest a third meaning. For example, the character 各 ''gè'' originally meant "to arrive". (It was long ago borrowed for "each".) The oracle-bone form of this compound, very similar to the modern glyph, shows 夂 a ''foot'' (the inverted form of 止 ''zhǐ,'' originally a foot) at a 凵 or 口 walled object, perhaps a dwelling. The meaning of "arrive" is thus suggested jointly, as a footstep at the door. As another example, the character 明, composed of the characters for the sun and the moon, means "bright".
As these characters became more stylized over time, one or more of the components was often compressed or abbreviated. For example, the character 人 "human" was reduced to 亻, 水 "water" to 氵, and 艸 "grass" to 艹.
A few further examples:
<center>
{| border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="4"
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">木</font>×2 = <font size="5">林</font><br />lín
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">木</font>×3 = <font size="5">森</font><br />sēn
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">人</font>+<font size="5">木</font> = <font size="5">休</font><br />xiū
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">two trees<br /> → '''grove'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">three trees<br /> → '''forest'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">a man leaning against a tree<br /> → '''rest'''</font>
|}
</center>
<center>
{| border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="4"
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">隹</font>+<font size="5">木</font> = <font size="5">集</font><br />jí
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">隹</font>×2 +<font size="5">又</font>= <font size="5">雙</font><br />shuāng
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">女</font>+<font size="5">子</font> = <font size="5">好<br /></font>hǎo
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">手</font>+<font size="5">木</font> = <font size="5">采 (採)</font><br />cǎi
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">a bird on a tree*<br /> → '''gather together'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">two birds in the right hand<br /> → '''pair'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">a girl with a boy<br /> → '''good'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">a hand on a bush<br /> → '''harvest'''</font>
|}
</center>
<center>
{| border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="4"
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">日</font>+<font size="5">月</font> = <font size="5">明</font><br />míng
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">木</font>×2+<font size="5">火</font> = <font size="5">焚</font><br />fén
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="5">禾</font>+<font size="5">火</font> = <font size="5">秋</font><br />qiū
|-----
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">sun and moon<br /> → '''bright'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">fire under woods<br /> → '''burn'''</font>
| valign="middle" align="center" | <font size="2">grain and fire<br /> → '''Autumn'''</font>
|}
</center>
::<nowiki>*</nowiki>Early forms of the character 集 ("gather together") show three birds (隹) on a tree.
=== Phono-semantic compound characters ===
*形聲 ''xíng shēng'' "form and sound"
These are often called '''radical-phonetic''' characters. They form the majority of Chinese characters by far—over 90%, and were created by combining a [[rebus]] with a [[determinative]]—that is, a character with approximately the correct pronunciation (the phonetic element, similar to a [[phonetic complement]]) with one of a limited number of characters which supplied an element of meaning (the semantic element, called a "[[radical (Chinese character)|radical]]", which centuries later would be used to organize characters in a dictionary). Such compounds remedied the difficulty of using iconic forms to represent physically similar objects (such as dogs versus wolves), actions, and abstract notions, without creating undue [[homophony]] as simple rebuses would. Phono-semantic compounds appeared prior to the first attested Chinese writing on Shang Dynasty oracle bones.
As an example, a verb meaning "to wash one's hair" is pronounced ''mù.'' Although difficult to draw, it happens to sound the same as the word ''mù'' "tree", which was written with the simple pictograph 木. The verb ''mù'' could simply have been written 木, like "tree", but to disambiguate, it was combined with the character for "water", giving some idea of the meaning. The resulting character eventually came to be written 沐 ''mù'' "to wash one's hair". Similarly, the water radical was combined with 林 ''lín'' "woods" to produce the water-related homophone 淋 ''lín'' "to pour".
{| class=wikitable
!Radical!!Rebus!!Compound
|-
| <font size="5">氵</font><br />water
| <font size="5">木</font><br />''mù''
| <font size="5">沐</font><br />''mù'' "to wash one's hair"
|-
| <font size="5">氵</font><br />water
| <font size="5">林</font><br />''lín''
| <font size="5">淋</font><br />''lín'' "to pour"
|}
However, the phonetic component is not always as meaningless as this example would suggest. Phonetic components were sometimes chosen that were compatible semantically as well as phonetically. It was also often the case that the radical merely constrained the meaning of a word which already had several. 菜 ''cài'' "vegetable" is a case in point. The radical 艹 for plants was combined with 采 ''cǎi'' "harvest". However, 采 ''cǎi'' does not merely provide the pronunciation. In classical texts it was also used to mean "vegetable". That is, 采 underwent semantic extension from "harvest" to "vegetable", and the addition of 艹 merely specified that the latter meaning was to be understood.
{| class=wikitable
!Radical!!Rebus!!Compound
|-
| <font size="5">艹</font><br />plant
| <font size="5">采</font><br />''cǎi''<br />"harvest, vegetable"
| <font size="5">菜</font><br />''cài'' "vegetable"
|}
Some additional examples:
{| class=wikitable
!Radical!!Rebus!!Compound
|-
| <font size="5">扌</font><br />hand
| <font size="5">白</font><br />''bái''
| <font size="5">拍</font><br />''pái'' "to clap, to hit"
|-
| <font size="5">穴</font><br />to dig into
| <font size="5">九</font><br />''jiǔ''
| <font size="5">究</font><br />''jiū'' "to investigate"
|-
| <font size="5">日</font><br />sun
| <font size="5">央</font><br />''yāng''
| <font size="5">映</font><br />''yìng'' "reflection"
|}
Originally characters sharing the same phonetic had similar readings, though they have now diverged substantially. Linguists rely heavily on this fact to reconstruct the sounds of [[Old Chinese]]. When people try to read a two-part character of which they are ignorant, they will typically follow the folk wisdom of ''[[you bian du bian]]'' (有邊讀邊) "read the side" and take one component to be a phonetic, which often results in errors.
Since the phonetic elements of many characters no longer accurately represent their pronunciations, when the People's Republic of China [[simplified chinese|simplified they characters]], they often substituted a phonetic that was not only simpler to write, but more accurate for a modern reading as well. (Note for the example that many radicals were simplified as well, usually by standardizing cursive forms.)
{|
|
{| class=wikitable
!colspan=3|Traditional character
|-
!Radical!!Rebus!!Compound
|-
| <font size="5">金</font><br />metal
| <font size="5">童</font><br />''tōng''
| <font size="5">鐘</font><br />''zhōng'' "bell"
|}
|
{| class=wikitable
!colspan=2|Simplified character
|-
!New rebus!!New compound
|-
| <font size="5">中</font><br />''zhōng''
| <font size="5">钟</font><br />''zhōng''
|}
|}
=== Rebus characters ===
*假借 ''jiǎ jiè'' "borrowing"
''Jiajie'' are characters that are "borrowed" to write another [[homophonous]] or near-homophonous morpheme, as in English "4ever" for "forever". For example, the character 來 was a pictogram of the wheat plant and originally meant ''*mloi'' "wheat". As this was similar to the Old Chinese word ''*mlois'' "to come", 來 was also used to write that verb. Eventually the more common use, the verb "to come", became established as the default reading of the character 來, and a new character was devised for "wheat", 麥. (The modern pronunciations are ''lái'' and ''mài.'') When a character is used this way, it is called a ''jiajiezi'' (假借字 "borrowed character"), or a ''phonetic loan character.''
As in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s and [[Sumerian cuneiform]], early Chinese characters were used as [[rebus]] to express the abstract meanings that were not easily depicted. Thus many characters stood for more than one word. In some cases the rebus would take over completely, and a new character would be created for the original meaning, usually by modifying the original character with a radical (determinative). This process of disambiguation is the source of phono-semantic compound characters.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of ''jiajie''
!Pictograph or<br>ideograph !! Original<br>meaning !! Rebus !! New character for<br>original meaning
|-
| <big>四</big> || ''sì'' "nostrils" || ''sì'' "four" || <big>泗</big> (mucous; sniffle)
|-
| <big>枼</big> || ''yè'' "leaf" || ''yè'' "flat, thin" || <big>葉</big>
|-
| <big>北</big> || ''bèi'' "back (of the body)" || ''běi'' "north" || <big>背</big>
|-
| <big>要</big> || ''yāo'' "waist" || ''yào'' "to want" || <big>腰</big>
|-
| <big>少</big> || ''shā'' "sand" || ''shǎo'' "few" || <big>沙</big> and <big>砂</big>
|-
|<big>永</big> || ''yǒng'' "swim" || ''yǒng'' "forever" || <big>泳</big>
|}
The term ''jiajie'' dates to the [[Han Dynasty]]. The related term ''tongjia'' (通假 ''tōngjiǎ'' "interchangeable borrowing") is first attested from the [[Ming Dynasty]]. The two terms are commonly used as synonyms, but there is a distinction between ''jiajiezi'' being a rebus for a word that did not originally have a character, such as using [[Wikt:東|東]] "a bag tied at both ends"[http://www.internationalscientific.org/CharacterASP/CharacterEtymology.aspx?characterInput=%E6%9D%B1&submitButton1=Etymology] for ''dōng'' "east", and ''tongjia'' being a rebus that replaces an existing character, such as using [[Wikt:蚤|蚤]] ''zǎo'' "flea" for [[Wikt:早|早]] ''zǎo'' "early".
The practice of ''tongjia'' creates one of the most notorious diffculties in the reading of ancient Chinese, particularly pre-[[Qin Dynasty|Qin]] texts. The origins of many Chinese characters are debated.
=== Transformed cognates ===
*轉注 ''zhuǎn zhù'' "reciprocal meaning"
This classification is of purely historical value, and is the least understood of the ''liushu'' principles of character formation. It may refer to characters which have similar meanings and often the same etymological root, but which have diverged in pronunciation and meaning. The English words ''chance'' and ''cadence'' would fit this pattern, as they share a common Latin root, ''cadentia'' "to fall". If English were written the way Chinese is, these two words might have similar characters.
The characters 老 ''lǎo'' "old" and 考 ''kǎo'' "a test" are the most commonly cited example. The words derive from a common etymological root (approximately ''*klao’),'' and the character differ only in the modification of one part.
==Modern classifications==
The ''liushu'' had been the standard classification scheme for Chinese characters since Xu Shen's time. Generations of scholars modified it without challenging the basic concepts. Tang Lan (唐蘭) (1902-1979) was the first to dismiss ''liushu,'' offering his own ''sanshu'' (三書 "Three Principles of Character Formation"), namely ''xiangxing'' (象形 "form-representing"), ''xiangyi'' (象意 "meaning-representing") and ''xingsheng'' (形聲 "meaning-sound"). This classification was later criticised by Chen Mengjia (陳夢家) (1911-1966) and Qiu Xigui. Both Chen and Qiu offered their own ''sanshu''. (Qiu 2000:chp. 6.3)
==References==
*Boltz, William G. (1994). ''The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System.'' American Oriental Series, vol. 78. American Oriental Society, New Haven, Connecticut, USA. ISBN 0-940490-78-1.
*DeFrancis, John (1984). ''The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy'', University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.
*_____(1989). ''Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems''. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. ISBN 0-8248-1207-7.
*Hansen, Chad (1993). "Chinese Ideographs and Western Ideas," ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 52.2:373-399.
*Qiu Xigui (裘錫圭) (2000). ''Chinese Writing''. Tran. Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.
*Wang Hongyuan (1993). ''The Origins of Chinese characters''. Beijing: Sinolingua. ISBN 978-7-80052-243-7.
*Woon, Wee Lee (雲惟利) (1987). ''Chinese Writing: Its Origin and Evolution'' (漢字的原始和演變), originally published by the University of East Asia, Macau (no ISBN).
==See also==
* [[Radical (Chinese character)|Radical]]
* [[Chinese writing]]
* [[Chinese calligraphy]]
* [[Japanese writing]]
* [[Stroke order]]
*''[[Ateji]],'' Chinese characters used phonetically in Japanese
* [[Transliteration into Chinese characters]], Chinese characters used phonetically
==External links==
{{wikibooks|Written Chinese/Lesson 1}}
* This page draws heavily on the French Wikipedia page ''[[:fr:Classification des sinogrammes|Classification des sinogrammes]]'', retrieved 12 April 2005.
[[Category:Kanji]]
[[Category:Chinese language]]
[[de:Sechs Kategorien chinesischer Schriftzeichen]]
[[fr:Classification des sinogrammes]]
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[[zh:六書]]
[[zh-classical:六書]]