Chinese in Singapore
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2008-07-15T07:37:18Z
Yhjow
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/* Initial Development of Mandarin */
{{POV|date=December 2007}}
[[Image:Junction of Smith Street and Trengganu Street 2, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Chinatown, Singapore|Chinatown]] was an [[enclave]] for the early Chinese [[immigrant]]s in Singapore in the 19th and early 20th centuries.]]
The '''Chinese in Singapore''' are people of Chinese descent who are born in or immigrated to [[Singapore]] and have attained citizenship or permanent residence status. As of 2000, Chinese Singaporeans constitute 78% of Singapore's population, or approximately three out of four Singaporeans. Outside [[Greater China]], Singapore is the only country in which [[Overseas Chinese]] forms the greatest majority of the population.
Chinese in Singapore today commonly recognize themselves first as Singaporeans (新加坡人), and then Chinese (huaren 华人). Some Chinese have married [[Peranakan]]s, who are Chinese in ethnicity but somewhere in their ancestorial line, they had married ethnic [[Malay people|Malays]]. They had thus developed a culture of their own comprising a mixture of [[Chinese culture|Chinese]] and Malay culture.
==Dialect groups==
The Chinese in Singapore are in majority [[Han Chinese]] with the exception of the [[Peranakans]] and very few chinese who were of Non-han ancestry such as [[Manchu]]. The [[Peranakans]] are classified as a separate ethnic group whose ancestry is not directly traceable to China. The Chinese forms 78% of the population in Singapore.
In general, the chinese in Singapore are grouped according to their respective chinese dialect or linguistic-cultural groups. Inter-dialect group marriage is quite common in Singapore, but dialect association follows the respective dialect of the father's side. Most of the Chinese in Singapore belong to several linguistic-cultural dialect groups, originating from mainly the southern parts of [[China]]. The Hokkien, Teochew and Hainanese, all of whom belong to the Min-nan group, jointly form more than three-quarters of the Chinese population. The Cantonese, Hakka and other minor groups account for most of the remainder.
The Chinese in Singapore had generally undergone two major nation-wide acculturation programs due to government policies. The two acculturation processes are [[Anglicization]] 英语化(since 1965 - conversion to English/Singlish-Speaking) and [[Mandarinization]] 华语化 (since 1980 onwards - conversion to Mandarin-speaking). As a result, most of the Chinese Singaporean had become effectively bilingual in both [[English Language]] and [[Mandarin Chinese]], with quite a number of Chinese Singaporean still being able to speak some form of chinese dialects.
Government policies targeted at narrowing dialect-culture and eradicating the subunit orientation differences within the Chinese community, was spearheaded by the [[Speak Mandarin Campaign|Speak Mandarin campaign]] together with the banning of dialect-medium subjects in schools and the media, have resulted in an entire generation of young Singaporeans distanced from their respective mother tongues and therefore their respective culture and heritage. This government policy towards the dialect of Singaporean Chinese continued to be a source of controversy, especially when criticism come from those Chinese Singaporean who are keen in preserving the dialect and local cultural heritage of Singapore.
===Hokkien (Fujian)===
[[Image:Thian Hock Keng Temple 3, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[Thian Hock Keng]] is the oldest [[Hoklo people|Hokkien]] [[temple]] in Singapore.]]
The Hokkiens constitute around 41% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most originated from the southern parts of the [[Fujian]] province (福建省), primarily [[Xiamen]] (厦门), Zhangzhou (漳州) and [[Quanzhou]] (泉州). They speak [[Amoy (linguistics)|Amoy]] Hokkien (厦门话 / 厦门闽南语), a [[Min-nan]] (闽南) dialect, which is 50.4% comprehensible with Teochew (潮州话), and less so with [[Qiongwen|Hainanese]](海南话). [http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/research/mutint/minnan.php]
The Hokkien language has become a [[lingua franca]] amongst the various Chinese dialectal groups and is also used by other ethnic groups such as the Malays and Indians to communicate with Chinese. This was especially so before Mandarin came into dominance during 1980s and 1990s.
Early Hokkiens migrants settled around Amoy Street and Telok Ayer Street, enclaving around the Thian Hock Kheng Temple and subsequent clan headquarters Hokkien Huey Kuan, later expanding to Hokkien St and the vicinity of China Street. Being most adventurous amongst the Chinese, the Hokkiens were the most active in early trading that centered along the Singapore River.
As the early settlers come from the southern coast of China, they tend to live off sea trades and worship one of the patron-deities of Taoist pantheon, the Heavenly Mother or "[[Matsu (goddess)|Ma Zhu]]" who supposedly look out for seafarers. Thian Hock Kheng Temple houses Goddess "Ma Zhu" (妈祖) and is thus also known as Ma Zhor Kheng. Another popular patron group of deities being the Nine Emperor Gods, a commemoration of the Emperors who brought peace and prosperity to the people. The common reverence of the supreme Taoist God, the Jade Emperor is also eminent amongst the Chinese Singaporeans and the bithday of the Jade Emperor on the 9th day of Chinese New Year is accorded utmost prominence.
An official Taoist practice by a Taoist spiritual medium known as "Tangki 乩童" (a hokkien term derived from Taiwan) is also popular amongst the Chinese. Basically, the spiritual medium goes into a spiritual trance and establishes a channel of communication between the mortal and the chosen Deity. It is said that the Taoist Deity transmogrified the spiritual medium and provides a wide range of help to devotees ranging from religious rituals to health, business, domestic queries and request like a talisman to protect their love ones.
===Teochew (Chaozhou)===
{{main|Teochew people}}
[[Image:Teochew Building, Mar 06.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Ngee Ann Kongsi]] is based at the Teochew Building on Tank Road.]]
The Teochew (also spelt Teochiu) in Singapore constitute about 21% of the Chinese population in Singapore. Teochews originated from the Chaoshan region in Guangdong Province of China, namely Jieyang, [[Shantou]], [[Chaozhou]], Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai and Nan'ao.
The Teochew people speak [[Chaozhou dialect|Teochew]], also a Min-Nan dialect, which has an overall 50.4% mutual intelligibility as [[Amoy (linguistics)|Hokkien]]. The Teochew people, like the Hainanese people, trace their ancestry to southern Fujian (闽南) just like the Hokkiens. Their migration from southern Fujian to their new homes in the Chaoshan region and Hainan Island respectively were mainly due to overpopulation and famine in the southern Fujian region. [http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/research/mutint/minnan.php]. However, despite linguistic and cultural similarities, the Teochews and Hokkiens considered themselves distinct and did not get along well during their early settlement in Singapore, especially during the British colonial era. Like the Hokkiens, the Teochews similarly shared the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Teochews were the dominant Chinese dialect group for a period of time during the 19th century. Mass immigration of Chinese from Fujian later outnumbered the Teochews, especially in the south. The majority of the Chinese living along the banks of the [[Straits of Johor]] were largely Teochew until the [[Housing and Development Board|HDB]] initiated mass redevelopment from the 1980s onwards.
However, the majority of the Teochew settled along the banks of [[Singapore River]] in Chinatown during the 19th and early 20th century. Teochews who settled in Chinatown professed in many commercial sectors as well as fishery. Traditional commercial sector Chinatown once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road.
Others, mainly businessmen, set up [[Uncaria|gambier]] and [[Black pepper|pepper]] [[plantations]] in the dense [[forests]] of Singapore, parts of northern Singapore as well as [[Johor Bahru]]. The Chinese first started their plantations with the approval of the Sultan of Johor from the nineteenth century onwards. This attracted more Teochew businessmen to start their plantations in those areas over the years. As such, the "Kangchu" system eventually started to form. The Chinese word "Kang" (江) means river, while "Chu" (厝) means house. However, in this context, "Chu" is the clan's name of the first headman in charge of the plantations in the area. The "Kangchus" gave rise to modern place names such as [[Choa Chu Kang]], [[Lim Chu Kang]] and [[Yio Chu Kang]], all of which were largely plantation areas prior to urban redevelopment.
Like many other dialect groups, early Chinese immigrants cluster themselves to form clan and dialect associations. These clan associations or Kongsi served as unions for the mostly illiterate Chinese laborers and their colonial ruler/employer. Subsequently there was a decamp from colonial bosses when the Kongsi conducted their own import/export, which in the colonialists' eyes was considered competition and thus labelled piracy. In order to safeguard their rice bowl, members of certain clans were sworn in with elaborate rites of passage which the colonialists termed as secret societies. Mostly, such associations were formed to look after the religious and welfare needs of Chinese immigrants in Singapore. One of the more prominent clan assosciation for the Teochew include [[Ngee Ann Kongsi]], a Teochew-oriented association formed in 1845 has established itself since thence.
''[[The Straits Times]]'' highlighted that [[Hougang]] has a relatively high concentration of Teochew residents.
===Cantonese (Guangdong)===
{{main|Cantonese people}}
The Cantonese make up 15% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Unlike the Hokkien, Teochew and the Hainanese, the Cantonese speak a dialect belonging to the [[Yue]] family. The Cantonese community is also further sub-divided into several sub-dialect groups. Yue Hai is considered to be the purest form of Cantonese because of its close proximity with [[Guangzhou]]. Other variants include Luoguang, Seiyap and Gouyeung. The Gwainaam variant is largely based in [[Guangxi]] and shares close affinity with [[Pinghua (linguistics)|Pinghua]]. As with the Hokkiens and Teochews, the Cantonese equally shares the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Cantonese mainly worked as goldsmiths, tailors and restaurateurs during the early and mid 20th century, and their businesses predominated the shophouses along Temple Street, Pagoda Street, and Mosque Street. Cantonese women from the [[Sanshui District|Samsui]] district ([[Chinese character|Chinese]]: 三水区; [[pinyin]]: Sānshǔi Qū), worked in construction sites, and contributed greatly towards the development of Singapore. These [[Samsui women]] were made famous by their bright red headgears.
These women, known as the Samsui women, left behind their families in China and came to Singapore to work in construction sites for a living during the early 20th century. They are noted for their distinctive navy blue outfits and bright red headgear, which were meant for protecting their hair as they worked. The headgear was first worn by Wang Chao Yun (王朝云 字子霞), a concubine of [[Su Shi|Su Dongpo]], in the Hakka Fui Chiu district of Guangdong province and it eventually became the traditional headgear of Hakkas. Cantonese women who worked alongside female Hakka labourers adopted the use of the headgear. To the average person, Samsui women normally evokes the image of a woman clad in blue top and trousers and the invariable headgear.
Cantonese women from the [[Sze Yup|Seiyap]] ([[Chinese character|Chinese]]: 四邑) district in [[Jiangmen]] prefecture wear black headgear similar to the Samsui women. Seiyap women who wear black headgear mainly work in [[shipyard]]s at the old [[harbour]] along [[Singapore river]] as well as at [[Keppel Harbour]].
These days, [[Chinatown, Singapore|Chinatown]] is known among Singaporeans for having a large number of Cantonese people.
===Hakka (Kejia)===
{{main|Hakka}}
[[Image:Ying Fo Fui Kun, Oct 06.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Ying Fo Fui Kun]] is the first [[Hakka]] [[clan]] [[Voluntary association|association]] in Singapore.]]
The [[Hakka]]s constitute 8% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Since their dialect was initially somewhat intelligible to [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], although strongly influenced by [[Min-nan]] and [[Yue]], they were believed to have migrated from Northern China between the 16th and the 17th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originate from Southern China, like the other Chinese dialect groups in Singapore.
Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.
===Hainanese and Northern Min===
This group constitutes 5% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Of them, the majority are Hainanese, from [[Hainan]], speaking [[Hainanese]].
The others, who included the [[Hockchew]] ([[Fuzhou]]), [[Hockchia]] and the [[Hinghwa]]s, who came from Northern Fujian and Southern [[Zhejiang]]. They speak various [[Northern Min]] dialects. As late-comers to Singapore (late 19th century), most of them worked as shop helpers, chefs, and waiters in the hospitality sector. Hainanese Chicken Rice is a famous dish.
The Singaporean Hainanese are also known for their Western food, as many of the early Hainanese migrants worked as cooks on European ships.
===Mandarin and Wu===
[[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] speakers from [[Beijing]] and other northern provinces, and [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] speakers from [[Shanghai]], [[Jiangsu]] and [[Zhejiang]], constitute only 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most of them immigrated to Singapore much later than the other groups. They can all speak [[Standard Mandarin]], the [[lingua franca]] among all the Chinese dialects, and may be able to speak their own dialects that are rarely used in daily life even amongst those from the same region.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
These are mainly first and second-generation Chinese Singaporeans who came to Singapore in the 1990s. They tend to be highly paid white-collar workers in [[multinational corporation]]s or academics in research and educational institutes. Also, there is an increasing number of Chinese teachers from the PRC working in Primary and Secondary schools and Junior Colleges in Singapore. This is because the Ministry of Education in Singapore finds it increasingly difficult to find qualified young Singaporeans to teach [[Standard Mandarin]].
===Taiwanese===
{{main|Taiwanese people}}
This group constitutes less than 1% of the Chinese Singaporean or Permanent Resident population. In Singapore, due to their small population, they are often sub-categorized into Singapore's larger Chinese dialect groups such as Hokkien, Hakka or Mandarin. Nevertheless, the Taiwanese Singaporeans form a distinctive group on their own. Most of them speak Mandarin, Taiwanese Hokkien or Hakka depending on their respective family dialect.
According to accounts by elderlies in Singapore, many Chinese teachers teaching the Chinese language during the 1950s and 1960s in the schools of Singapore came from Taiwan. More immigration from Taiwan began during the 1970s and 1980s as more Taiwanese came to Singapore to invest, work, live or study. Most of them are highly-educated, and employed in professions such as engineering, business, investment and education.
===Peranakan (Ethnic Group)===
{{main|Peranakan}}
[[Image:East Coast Road 3, Mar 06.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Peranakan]]s in Singapore were once concentrated in [[Katong]].]]
The [[Peranakan]], also known as Baba-Nonya are early Chinese immigrants from [[Malacca]], of which many of them later migrated to Singapore. As they contain mix blood of the Chinese and the Malays, the [[Peranakans]] are classified as a separate ethnic group from the [[Han Chinese]] in Singapore. They embrace a fusion of Malay and Chinese cultures while still maintaining their Chinese ethnicity. The men are known as Baba while the women are known as Bibiks or Nonyas. Peranakans in Singapore were once concentrated in the Geylang and [[Katong]] areas. This is because the Peranakans were often intermediaries for businesses and social groups during colonial Singapore owing to their ability to speak English, Malay and Hokkien.
Many Peranakans and Hokkien Chinese moved out of the congested town of Singapore - now the Central Business District (CBD) - and built seaside mansions and villas along the East Coast in Tanjong Katong ("Turtle Bay" in the Malay language) for their dynasties.
However, they have since dispersed off to other parts of Singapore after 1965. Peranakans in Singapore generally belong to the Hokkien and Teochew dialect groups and spoke Baba Malay and Chinese dialects as mother tongues. Many of them converted to Roman Catholicism during the 18th-century Portuguese colonisation into South-East Asia. Missionaries set up posts in Batavia (Indonesia), Malaya (Malaysia) of which Malacca, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore were parts of before the 1965 independent and separation movement of Singapore city from its Malayan hinterland.
The Peranakans were a transcultural mix of races that blended colonial English style with indigenous Malay languages and Hokkien Chinese customs.
===Singlish/English ===
{{main|Singlish}}
Although not officially classified as a 'Chinese group' in Singapore, there is a sizeable group of Chinese Singaporean who speak English or Singlish as a first language. They speak Singlish or English at home, and make it a point to immerse and educate their children in the English language. They are commonly known as "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean". Some of them even referred to themselves as "Ang Moh Pai 红毛派" (hokkien term that literally means "red-hair faction" or "Caucasian faction") or "English-Educated". The term "Ang Moh Pai" can however be interpreted differently when the term is used in derogatory way to refer to 'westernized banana' (a westernized chinese who is yellow on the outside and white on the inside).
Unlike the "English-educated" Chinese counterparts in Malaysia, most of the "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" are able to speak, read and write in Chinese due to the mandatory requirement of Singapore's education to learn chinese in schools. Most of the "English-speaking Chinese Singapore" are generally stronger in the English language compared to their Chinese language.
The "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" were generally born in Singapore and had grown up under two or more generations of family who have had english education. Because their parents and grandparents spoke English, they found it easier to speak English or Singlish. There is also quite a number who used to speak Chinese dialects at home, but later chose to speak English/Singlish after they got married. This had led to more chinese families speaking Singlish/English at home. Ever since Singapore adopted and standardized English as medium of instruction in all schools in the 1980s (i.e. english-based education became the norm), the number of chinese families speaking Singlish/English had increased.
The "English-speaking Chinese Singaporean" can sometimes be even categorized into different subgroups according to their cultural orientation such as "localised pai" (more influenced by Singapore local culture),"Chinese pai" (more influenced by Chinese culture), "westernized pai" (more influenced by Western or American culture) etc. Majority of English-speaking Chinese Singaporean found themselves to be within the "localised pai" (i.e. culturally, they are between east and west and they tend to associate themselves with the local Singaporean identity).
==Religion==
According the 2000 census, 42.5% of Singapore's Chinese population declared themselves to be [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], 8.5% [[Taoism|Taoist]], 14.6% [[Christianity|Christian]] and 14.8% non-religious. The Chinese form the vast majority in these four groups, due to their dominance in Singapore.
The majority of the Chinese in Singapore register themselves as Buddhist, and a smaller number claimed to be Taoist. Many Chinese have retained to a certain extent the Taoist belief and practice which is an age-old Chinese tradition. Taoism was once the dominant belief system, but younger generations have either switched to Buddhism or have become non-religious.
===Taoism===
[[Image:Yueh Hai Ching Temple 6, Mar 06.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Yueh Hai Ching Temple]] is the oldest [[Taoism|Taoist]] [[temple]] in Singapore.]]
Taoism is practiced by 8.5% of Singapore's population, which amounts to more than 200,000 individuals. As a backbone of Chinese culture, Taoism was once a popular belief held by many Chinese, but Taoist beliefs has witnessed a sharp decline from the 1990s onwards, as most of the younger-generation, Chinese Singaporeans perceive the religion as demoded and draconian.
Taoists in Singapore are generally polytheistic, and worship similar Deities. Many of these Deities are incarnated and thus ancestral and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. The Chinese also worship some Deities of common origins, notably the Jade Emperor, the Northern Emperor or Xiong Tae Gong, Emperor Guan Yu or Guan Tae, and the Heavenly Empress or [[Matsu (goddess)|Matsu]]. Other Deities that were venerated and frequently taken as auspicious images include Prosperity (Hock in Teochew/Hokkien, Fok in Cantonese, Fu 福 in Mandarin), Wealth (Lock in Teochew/Hokkien, Luk in Cantonese, Lu 禄 in Mandarin), and Longevity (Siew in Teochew/Hokkien, Sao in Cantonese, Shou 寿 in Mandarin) (see [[Fu Lu Shou]]). This includes ancestral Gods such as [[Guan Yu]]. The God of Fortune is also venerated by many Chinese businessmen all over Singapore as well as Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China. Minor Deities, especially ancestral, worshipped by different dialect groups may not share a common origin with other dialect groups.
The Hakka are an exception in this case. Unlike other Chinese dialect groups, some Deities worshipped by Hakka are not depicted in the form of statues. Usually a stone or tablet is used to represent the Deity instead, and this is particularly true side-temple Deities that are not placed in the main altar.
Adherents of Taoism would place house altars in their living room. This is more frequently seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The family God or Deity would be placed on the top altar, and a spiritual tablet would be placed at the bottom altar, although ancestral tablets are at times incorrectly placed at the top altar as well. Often, urns, usually placed with some joss sticks, are placed in front of the Deity. Oil lamps may also be placed at the sides, and fruit offerings are also placed in front of the Deity as offerings to the Deity.
A [[brazier]], often painted red, may also be seen. They are meant for burning joss papers. They also hang a small altar, painted red, with the words "Heaven Bestows Wealth" (天宮賜福) painted on it outside the house or simply a small urn filled with ash where joss sticks are placed. The smoke emitted from burning joss sticks is believed to transmit their devotion and at times requests to the Gods in heaven.
Traditional Chinese [[funeral]] customs is largely Taoist, although nowadays Buddhist monks are often invited to initiate the rituals. Therefore, either Taoist priests or Buddhist monks are called in to chant mantras and prayers. Funerals are usually conducted under the void deck of an HDB flat, condominium, or within the living premises of the deceased's private house. Funeral rituals usually last three to five days. Due to land spatial constraints, families of deceased members would have the deceased cremated in crematoriums and temples inlieu of their custom of a burial.
Taoists in Singapore are influenced by Buddhism and vice versa. There is definitely a unique culture and practice that has developed locally that gave rise to the localized religious flavor in Singapore. Most who declared themselves as Buddhist are also often seen honoring and revering Taoist Gods and Deities; and most Taoists, on the other hand, are also ready to honor Lord Buddha. In fact, the demarcation between Buddhism and Taoism has obscurred and to adherents of either religion, Taoism and Buddhism are actually viewed as a single entity.
The afore-stated reason probably accounted for the steep decline in the number of adherents of Taoism, from 30% in 1980 to 22.4% in 1990, and then down to 8.5% in 2000 whilst Buddhism rise from 31.2% in 1990 to 42.5% in 2000. Proposition that economic affluence and changes in lifestyles have led younger-generation Chinese Singaporeans to embrace evangelical Christianity may well be overstated as the percentage rise in Christianity between 1990 (12.7%) to 2000 (14.6%) is merely less than 2%.
===Buddhism===
[[Image:Sakaya Muni Buddha Gaya Temple, Aug 06.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Sakya Muni Buddha Gaya Temple]] on [[Race Course Road]] is often referred to as the ''Temple of 1,000 Lights''.]]
Buddhism is practiced by 42.5% of Singapore's population, or more than half of the Chinese in Singapore. The growth of Buddhism and Buddhist teachings in Singapore is not a recent development. Overseas missionaries from Taiwan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Japan and to a lesser extent, Tibet, have introduced [[Theravada]], [[Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] to Singaporeans. The Buddhists in Singapore are not exclusively ethnic Chinese, they include Japanese expatriates, Europeans, Americans, and Eurasians who have converted from Christianity.
All the three mainstream Buddhist traditions, namely [[Theravada]], [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]] are well represented in Singapore and they unanimously celebrate the festival [[Vesak]]. Vesak Day is a festive that commemorates the birth, Enlightenment and the Nirvana of [[Lord Buddha Gautama]].
In recent decades, atop of the inherent Buddhist-Taoist culture, Buddhist missionaries from other parts of Asia have cause large number of converts throughout the region. Valued and learned writings translated into books are one of many factors responsible for the success of Buddhism. Other factors include Singaporeans' relations with Buddhist organizations overseas.
Buddhists in Singapore normally pay frequent visits to Temples for prayers, Dharma Centers of Monasteries for dharma activities like Dharma Talks or discussions, Meditation, Chanting as well as many other activities especially for the youth.
===Christianity===
[[Image:City Harvest Church Jurong West Building.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charismatic churches in Singapore such as City Harvest and New Creation have been especially successful in attracting many Chinese youth.]]
Christianity is practiced by 14.6% of Singapore's population, the great majority of whom are ethnic Chinese. Most Christians in Singapore are either [[Roman Catholic]] or [[Protestant]], with [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] forming a minuscule minority.
Protestants in Singapore include [[Anglican]]s, [[Methodist]]s, [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]s and [[Baptist]]s.
Non-sectarian Churches such as [[Pentecostal]]s, [[Charismatic movement|Charismatics]] have made large numbers of converts in the recent years, notably among youths. However, Catholicism (Roman) still remains the largest denomination locally.
[[Ancestor worship]] is not permitted among Catholics, contrary to what many Protestants believe. However, dead ancestors are often prayed for during Mass and various prayer services. But this is considered taboo among [[Protestant]] denominations. However, the continuation of [[ancestor worship]] persists according to individuals, especially during the [[Qingming Festival|Cheng Meng]] festival.
Christian [[church]] services are mainly held in English, though some churches have services in different languages, notably Mandarin, [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and even in Chinese dialects. Latin services are occasionally conducted in Catholic churches.
The Christian population in Singapore grew from 10% in the 1980s to 18% in 1988 before taking a dip to 14.6% as recently.
===Other===
Another 13% of the Chinese Singaporean are non-religious adherents and they call themselves "[[free thinkers]]". In Singapore, this term simply means that the person does not adhere to any single religion. However, most perpetuate the Chinese traditions and practices.
A small minority of the Singapore Chinese follow either [[Islam]] or [[Hinduism]]. Most are converts who have married [[Malay people|Malay]] Muslims or [[India]]n Hindus. Some may be raised by Malays or Indians whilst some are simply a matter of personal choice.
==History==
There are records of the Chinese presence in Singapore as early as the 14th-century. [[Imperial China|Imperial Chinese]] sources state that there was a significant amount of Chinese inhabitants in the region. According to the Chinese explorer [[Wang Dayuan]], the Chinese inhabitants of Singapore were dressed in local traditional costume and were largely intermarried with the local South-East Asian women, following an amalgam of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]]. These were the earliest [[Peranakans]] of [[Singapore]].
After [[Singapore]] became the capital of the [[British Empire|British]] [[Straits Settlements]] in 1832, the free trade policy attracted many Chinese from [[Mainland China]] to trade, and many settled down in [[Singapore]]. The large influx of Chinese to Singapore led to the establishment of a large number of Chinese associations, schools, and temples in Singapore and within a century, the Chinese immigrants exceeded the population of the Malays. During this period, [[Christian]] [[missionaries]] from [[Europe]] began to evangelize the Asians, especially the Chinese. By 1849, the Chinese formed half of Singapore's population.
===During WWII===
[[Image:Lim Bo Seng Memorial, Aug 06.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The Lim Bo Seng Memorial at [[Esplanade Park]] commemorates [[Lim Bo Seng]], a [[World War II]] anti-Japanese Resistance fighter who was based in Singapore and [[British Malaya|Malaya]].]]
The [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], started in 1937, revived a perceived sense of patriotism in the local Chinese to China and soon the Singaporean Chinese imposed an embargo against Japanese goods and products in Singapore. During the war, fearing for the safety of their relatives in China, some of the immigrants returned to China to fight the Japanese, while established entrepreneurs sent economic aid or military equipment to China. After the Japanese [[Battle of Singapore|took Singapore]] in 1942, the [[Kempeitai]] tracked down many Chinese who aided the Chinese war effort against Japan. However, the Kempeitai's [[Sook Ching Operation]] was simply a massacre designed to drive fear into the local populace, so the Kempeitai simply picked out people based on accounts of masked informers, which in many cases are false accounts based on personal vendettas. There were also active anti-Japanese resistance during the war, such as [[Force 136]], headed by [[Lim Bo Seng]].
===Racial tensions===
[[Race riots]] were common during the early post-war period, predominantly the period between self-governance and independence in 1965.
One [[1964 Race Riots|major riot]] took place during birthday celebrations in honour of [[Muhammad]], on [[21 July]] [[1964]]. There were records of high casualties (23 killed and 454 injured). There were claims that the riot was politically motivated to oust then Prime Minister ([[Lee Kuan Yew]]) and his cabinet, to prevent the ideology of a [[Malaysian Malaysia]] to spread north towards [[Peninsular Malaysia]].
==Anglicization and Mandarinization of Chinese in Singapore==
It has been observed from the history of the languages in Singapore that most of the Chinese Singaporean had undergone two major nation-wide acculturation programs due to government policies. The two acculturation processes are [[Anglicization]] 英语化(since 1965 - conversion to English/Singlish-Speaking) and [[Mandarinization]] 华语化 (since 1980 onwards - conversion to Mandarin-speaking). As a result, most of the Chinese Singaporean had become effectively bilingual in both English and Mandarin chinese, with quite a number of Chinese Singaporean still being able to speak some form of chinese dialects. Both English/Singlish and Mandarin/Singdarin are today widely spoken among chinese community in Singapore, besides other dialects.
===Controversy===
The two acculturation processes, no doubt, had contributed to Singapore's economic success, given the fact that Chinese in Singapore are able to communicate with both the western world and the chinese world in terms of economic and business interaction. However, the two acculturation process of Chinese Singaporean remained to be a controversial issue, especially when criticism comes from dialect-preservation groups in Singapore.
Chinese Singaporeans who are more cultural and historical-conscious of their heritage tend to argue that the two acculturation processes had led to the diminishing of chinese dialects, which they are not willing to give up, because dialects are their cultural roots. They argued that the banning of dialect media in TV and the lack of dialects-teaching in school had led to an entire generation of Chinese Singaporean distanced away from their root culture and not being able to speak the dialects properly. What is worst is that discouraging dialect-speaking in favour of both English and Mandarin had led to "dialect-speaking" being associated with a "low-class culture" in Singapore, while "mandarin-speaking" is considered to be cool (as spearheaded by the [[Speak Mandarin Campaign]]). This makes it even more difficult for dialect to survive in Singapore.
Interestingly, one of main arguments from dialect-preservation groups is that both the English and Mandarin language are not the 'original' mother tongue of the Chinese Singaporean. Even for Mandarin, in its strictest sense, is only considered a "sub mother-tongue" of Chinese Singaporean, because a large majority of Chinese Singaporean had originated from Southern China, whereby the true mother tongue are dialects such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hakka, Hainanese etc. Thus, Mandarin is only considered the 'true mother-tongue' unless one originated from North China. The very fact that Mandarin has been termed the "mother tongue" for all chinese in Singapore continues to be 'controversial' as it had led to the young generation thinking that Mandarin is their true mother tongue instead of the chinese dialects.
The anglicization of the Chinese Singaporean is sometimes also criticised by the chinese elites in Singapore for leading to an increased westernization of Chinese Singaporeans, who tend to withdraw themselves away from the traditional chinese roots and cultural identity.
Those who supported the two acculturation processes had however argued generally from the clear economical advantage of knowing both English and Mandarin, as a way of communicating with both the western and chinese world. Although Mandarin is considered to be a 'sub mother-tongue' of Chinese Singaporean, it is nevertheless still the only official chinese language in Singapore and it allows the Chinese Singaporean to be able to maintain one's cultural root and chinese identity. Notably, they also cited China and Taiwan as clear example of how Mandarin was adopted as the lingua franca (common languages) amongst all chinese groups. They also argued the need to forge a single "chinese identity" for all the various chinese dialect groups in Singapore and to close the differences between various dialect-speaking groups in Singapore.
Both [[Singlish]] and [[Singdarin]] are the by-products of the two acculturation process. Both of these local dialects are discouraged by the government, since both native English-speakers and native Mandarin-speakers from China/Taiwan will not be able to understand these dialects when communicating with Chinese Singaporean. If dialects were to be further introduced into schools in Singapore, it would probably make the languages in Singapore even more confusing, more mixed-up, making it even more difficult for Singaporeans to master two languages.
===Region where English and Mandarin are spoken===
While English is more commonly spoken in various sectors such as business, banking, government, schools/universities, Mandarin is also widely spoken by the chinese in quite a number of firms and organisations. In places such as Hawker Center, Kopitiam, Food Court, Neighbourhood Stores, Shopping Center, Mandarin tends to be more commonly spoken by the chinese. While English continued to dominate all English-speaking media, Mandarin has today dominated the chinese language media and chinese pop scene in Singapore, in lieu of dialect-speaking media which used to be part of Singapore's chinese media. Today, most of the religious organisation in Singapore such as Church, buddhist temple, taoist temple offered religious information/services in both English and Mandarin besides Hokkien.
===History of Anglicization===
Anglicization generally refers to the process of converting a person to speak English as his/her 1st language. It is slightly different from westernization, which largely involves the adoption of western names, western values, western thoughts and speaking the same accent as like native English speakers from England or America. Quite a portion of Chinese Singaporeans had been been anglicized to a certain degree in that they speak English as 1st language and tend to think or communicate in terms of English. However, one major differences that set them apart from others is that they usually speak English in the form of localized [[Singlish]].
Anglicized Chinese Singaporean are sometimes being associated with "being [[westernization|westernized]]" (the so-called "Ang Mo Pai 红毛派"), largely because they had a greater tendency to be more influenced by the west, given the fact that they usually read English books written by Americans and British, and are thus more prone to be influenced by western thoughts, western values, western pop culture etc. The "degree of [[westernization]]" can however vary differently according to individuals. Most of them generally regarded their cultural orientation in between east and west.
Historians had not yet been able to pin-point when exactly anglicization of some Chinese Singaporean began. It probably began when the 1st batch of Chinese in Singapore attended English or Missionaries schools, which were founded by the British, during the 19th century. Since they were educated in English and learnt no chinese in School, they began to speak English at home as their first language and passed on the language to their later generations. Despite their language orientation, most of the "English-speaking Chinese" never forget their chinese identity and their respective dialect orientation, even though some of them could no longer speak the dialect.
Before 1965, 'street Malay' was generally spoken like a common language in Singapore and there were limited number of chinese in Singapore who could speak English. English-speaking was limited only to those who were English-educated and who previously worked for the British government as translator.
But by 1965 when Singapore gained independence, English was chosen as the lingua franca (Common Language) among all races in Singapore.
It was chosen due to the following:
* English was considered to be a neutral language amongst all races. It does not belong to any races (as a native language) in Singapore. Malay could not become the common language in Singapore because the chinese were the majority in Singapore. Mandarin was not chosen as the common language amongst all races because many government officials in Singapore (who used to work for British colonial government) were generally English-educated who did not know the Mandarin language at that time. In fact, Hokkien (instead of Mandarin) was the most widely common dialect language spoken by the chinese in Singapore during the 1960s.
* English is an international language that could help Singapore in the economic development
* English was also chosen partly due to political reasons. The Singapore government in the 1960s feared that there would be a resurgence of communism in Singapore. Many chinese in Singapore could be influenced by communism movement from China and Malaysia in the 1960s, if they were able to read chinese communist propaganda material in chinese. In order to diminish the communist influence from China and Malaysia, English was favored over Mandarin Chinese from 1965 till 1980.
English was thus encouraged in 1965, in addition to other three official languages such as Mandarin, Malay and Tamil. From 1965 till 1980, the Singapore government encouraged the Chinese Singaporean to learn English and to attend English-speaking school. This soon led to a new generation of English-speaking Chinese. From 1980 onwards, all schools in Singapore had adopted English as the medium of instruction for all subjects except chinese language classes. This generally led to an increasing anglicization of Chinese in Singapore.
===History of Mandarinization===
====General====
Mandarinization generally refers to the process of converting a person to speak Mandarin as his/her 1st language. Quite a portion of Chinese Singaporeans had been mandarinized to a certain degree in that they speak Mandarin as 1st language and tend to think or communicate in terms of Mandarin. Mandarin is normally spoken among the chinese community in Singapore as a common language to bridge the gaps between different dialect-speaking groups.
The Mandarinized Chinese in Singapore generally consists of two groups:
* '''Fluent and Proper Mandarin Speakers''' - they comprise of chinese elites in Singapore who are well-versed in chinese language and culture, new chinese immigrants from China and Taiwan, english-educated who had mandarinized themselves to speak fluent mandarin etc. They generally speak Mandarin at home and expose themselves to chinese language in their daily life.
* '''Singdarin Speakers''' - they consists of Chinese Singaporeans who speak Singapore-Style Mandarin (mixed with English and other dialects) in their daily colloqual conversation.
Mandarinized Chinese in Singapore are sometimes being associated with "being [[sinification|sinicized]]" (the so-called "Cheena Pai" or "Chinese Pai 华派"). They generally love chinese language and culture. They also read chinese books written by authors from China, Taiwan or Singapore. They generally love to watch Chinese TV shows and listen to Mandarin radio programs. As such, they are more likely to be influenced by chinese culture, chinese thoughts and values. They also have greater interest on China or Taiwan, not to mention some form of cultural connection with China. The "degree of [[sinification]]" can however vary according to individuals.
====Initial Development of Mandarin====
Historians had not been able to exactly pin-point when Mandarin was first spoken in Singapore. To understand the development of Mandarin, it is necessary to look at the history of immigration and development of chinese schools in Singapore.
Early Chinese Immigrants from Southern China to Singapore during the 19th century generally spoke their respective dialects such as Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Hainanese etc. Some of the early Chinese Immigrants had founded private chinese schools (known as "sishu 私塾") to propagate the chinese language and culture to their descendents. However, these early chinese schools were dialect-based schools because the medium of instruction was in Hokkien or some other dialects, instead of Mandarin. That meant that recitation of chinese classics and learning of literary writings during that time were done in Hokkien, instead of Mandarin.
By 1920s, Mandarin was already adopted as the official language of China. Influenced by the [[Mandarinization]] Movement across China, the chinese schools in Singapore began to change their medium of instruction to Mandarin instead of Dialect. More Chinese Mandarin schools were also founded from 1920 till 1950s, as a result of large number of immigrants from China. These soon produced a group of Mandarin-speaking Chinese in Singapore. During the british colonial rule of Singapore, chinese schools were allowed to develop on their own, without interference from the british colonial government. Funding for these chinese schools came largely from overseas chinese donation. Chinese Schools during this period generally used the same teaching material from China and chinese education system was the same as that in China. These materials were generally quite chinese nationalistic, due to Japanese's invasion of China during World War II.
From 1942-1945 onwards, Japan had occupied Singapore. Japanese language were introduced to Chinese Schools. The Chinese in Singapore (in particular the students) were often suspected to lead an underground Anti-Japanese resistance.
In 1953, a Mandarin language-based University, [[Nanyang University]], was founded by [[Tan_Lark_Sye]] in Singapore. It was the only chinese language university outside China. The first principal was [[Lin Yutang]]. The first batch of chinese-educated elite graduated in 1960. Over the next 27 years, Nanyang University started to produce a core group of chinese elites in Singapore, who are well-versed in chinese language and culture.
====Difficulties for Mandarin====
Despite the creation of [[Nanyang University]] in the 1950s, the Mandarin language had encountered some difficulties in its development from 1950s till 1979. This was due in part to the political changes and language policy in Singapore.
The Singapore government, who was against communism, feared that the Chinese in Singapore would be influenced by communism in China. In order to prevent the resurgence of communism in Singapore, the Singapore government not only undertook tough actions against the communists in Singapore (as seen in the [[Operation Coldstore]] in 1963), but also banned the traveling of Chinese in Singapore to China.
Chinese Schools in Singapore were often regarded by the Singapore government to be breeding grounds for communism. Mandarin language was also viewed suspiciously to be a source that would propagate communism in Singapore. The Chinese-educated in Singapore in turn were viewed with suspicion by the Singapore government to be possible source for riots or connection with communism.
Due to adoption of English as the lingua franca of Singapore in 1965, the Singapore government generally undertook an anglicization program. From 1965 till 1979, English language was generally favored over Mandarin language. Other than the political reasons as suggested above, English language was also seen to be an economic driving force that would encourage western investments in Singapore. In 1970, the Singapore government also started the bilingual policy of making English the 1st language and Mandarin the 2nd language. It encouraged the chinese in Singapore to attend English-speaking schools, rather than Mandarin-speaking schools. The number of Chinese in Singapore attending English schools increased while those attending chinese schools declined. By the 1970s, Chinese-educated generally faced job discrimination and unemployment problems as a result of their weaker ability in the English language. In 1975, [[Nanyang University]] changed its medium of instruction for all its subjects, except chinese language, from bilingual (Chinese/English) to monolingual (English only). By 1980, Nanyang University was merged with National University of Singapore and all schools in Singapore (including chinese schools) started to adopt English as the medium of instruction leading to full anglicization of Singapore.
Despite the decline of Mandarin in Singapore during this period of time, there was still a limited body of chinese in Singapore working on the propagation of Mandarin and chinese literature in Singapore. Most of the work were done in conjunction with the chinese literary circle in Taiwan or Hongkong.
====Revival of Mandarin====
====Domination of Mandarin====
==See also==
*[[Overseas Chinese]]
*[[British Chinese]]
*[[Buddhism in Singapore]]
*[[Taoism in Singapore]]
*[[Singlish]]
*[[Malaysian Chinese]]
*[[wikt:Jook-sing|Jook-sing]]
*[[List of common Chinese surnames in Singapore]]
*[[Chinese language romanisation in Singapore]]
==References==
*[http://www.singstat.gov.sg/keystats/c2000/religion.pdf Statistics of adherents of different religions in Singapore]
*http://weecheng.com/singapore/9eg/index.htm
*''[[The Straits Times]]'', April 28, 2006, pg 15, Prime section
*[http://www.singstat.gov.sg/ssn/feat/2Q2001/pg2-6.pdf Profile of the Singapore Chinese Dialect Groups]
*[http://www.zaobao.com/chinese/region/singapore/culture/singapore_culture140399c.html 新加坡华文知识分子角色的演变 (Changing role of the Chinese Intellectuals in Singapore), Lianhe Zaobao, 14th March 1999]
==External links==
*[http://regaliathai.com/index.htm Thai Theravada Buddhist Shop in Singapore]
*[http://www.peranakan.web1000.com/ The Peranakan Resource Library - A resource website for all things Peranakan]
*[http://www.peranakan.web1000.com/StoreMainPage.htm/ The Online Peranakan Antiques Boutique - An online exclusive boutique to buy exquisite & rare Peranakan antiques]
*[http://www.peranakan4kids.web1000.com/ Peranakan For Kids - A Peranakan educational site for both kids & teens]
*[http://weecheng.com/singapore/tanki/story1.htm Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods]
*[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=2875 2003 speech by Lee Hsien Loong on Teochews]
*[http://www.geocities.com/eugene_esther/ Spoken Cantonese in Singapore]
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Singapore]]
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[[Category:Overseas Chinese groups|Singaporean]]
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