Christian theology 384921 224596501 2008-07-09T16:09:18Z 149.166.165.126 /* Post-Reformation */ "Cult" is a little slanderous towards the mormons {{Christianity}} '''Christian [[theology]]''' is discourse concerning [[Christianity|Christian]] faith. Christian theologians use biblical [[exegesis]], [[rationality|rational]] analysis and argument to [[understanding|understand]], [[explanation|explain]], test, [[critic#critique|critique]], defend or promote Christianity. Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian understand Christianity more truly,<ref>See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, ''Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)</ref> make [[comparative religion|comparisons]] between Christianity and other traditions,<ref>See, e.g., David Burrell, ''Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions'' (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)</ref> [[apologetics|defend]] Christianity against critics, facilitate Christianity's reform,<ref>See, e.g., John Shelby Spong, ''Why Christianity Must Change or Die'' (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)</ref> assist in the [[proselytism|propagation]] of Christianity,<ref>See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al (eds), ''Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity'' (London: Continuum, 2003)</ref> draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or need,<ref>For example, see Timothy Gorringe, ''Crime'', Changing Society and the Churches Series (London:SPCK, 2004)</ref> or for a variety of other reasons. Christian theology has permeated much of [[Western culture|Western]] [[culture]], especially in pre-modern Europe. Therefore, because of their interdependence a proper understanding of either Western culture or Christian theology requires a full understanding of both. == The emergence of Christian theology == The emergence of Christian theology has sometimes been presented as the triumph of Hellenistic [[rationality]] over the Hebraic [[faith]] of [[Jesus]] and the early disciples. The early African theologian [[Tertullian]], for instance, complained that the 'Athens' of philosophy was corrupting the 'Jerusalem' of faith.<ref> Tertullian, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-03/anf03-24.htm ''De praescriptione haereticorum'' 7].</ref> More recent discussions have qualified and nuanced this picture. * From the very beginning of the Christian movement, followers of Jesus tried to make sense of the impact of Jesus of Nazareth, and began arguing about differing ways of making sense. There has never been an uncontested, unrationalized Christian faith.<ref>See, for example, Stephen Sykes, ''The Identity of Christianity'' (London: SPCK, 1984) or Wayne Meeks, 'Inventing the Christ: multicultural process and poetry among the first Christians', ''Studia Theologica'' 58.1, pp.77-96, for arguments along these lines</ref>. * These processes of making sense initially drew upon the ideas and narratives of contemporary Judaism, which was already Hellenized in various degrees. As time went by, ideas and narratives from other Hellenistic context were drawn on, but the Jewish scriptures remained a key driver of theological development, and too sharp a distinction between Hebraic and Hellenistic is unsustainable. Some elements of early Christian theologizing previously thought to be thoroughly 'Hellenistic' (e.g., the Prologue of John's Gospel) are now regularly argued to be thoroughly Jewish. * The ideas and narratives drawn on in this process were transformed as they were given a new context in Christian practices of devotion, community—formation and evangelism—and the extent to which borrowings from Hellenistic culture (for instance) were given new meanings in this process should not be underestimated.<ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003)</ref> * One of the characteristics of those strands of early Christianity (in the second and third centuries) sometimes called 'proto-orthodox' (because they are the most direct ancestors of the forms of Christianity that in the fourth century were defined as Orthodox), invested a great deal of time and energy in communication between widely spread conversations, and in pursuing a deep interest in each other's beliefs and practices. This concern and communication seems to have been as much a driver of the development of theological activity as the desire to communicate Christianity to, or make it acceptable in, a Hellenistic culture.<ref>See Rowan Williams, 'Does it make sense to speak of pre – Nicene orthodoxy?' in idem (ed.) ''The Making of Orthodoxy'' (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), pp.1-23.</ref> == The history of Christian theology == {{main|History of Christian theology}} ===Early Christian theology=== The [[New Testament]] contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of reflection upon the meanings and implications of Christian faith, mostly in the form of guidance offered to Christian congregations on how to live a life consistent with their convictions – notably in the [[paul of Tarsus|Pauline corpus]] and [[authorship of the Johannine works|Johannine corpus]]. A huge quantity of theological reflection emerged in the early centuries of the Christian church – in a wide variety of genres, in a variety of contexts, and in several languages – much of it the product of attempts to discuss how Christian faith should be lived in cultures very different from the one in which it was born. So, for instance, a good deal of the [[Greek language]] literature can be read as an attempt to come to terms with Hellenistic culture. The period sees the slow emergence of [[orthodoxy]] (the idea of which seems to emerge out of the conflicts between [[catholic]] Christianity and [[gnosticism|Gnostic]] Christianity), the establishment of a [[Biblical canon]], debates about the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] (most notably between the councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] in [[325]] and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in [[381]]), about [[Christology]] (most notably between the councils of Constantinople in 381 and [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] in [[451]]), about the purity of the Church (for instance in the debates surrounding the [[Donatist]]s), and about [[Divine grace|grace]], [[free will]] and [[predestination]] (for instance in the debate between [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Pelagius]]). Texts from patristic authors before 325 AD are collected in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]]. Texts from patristic authors after 325 AD are collected in the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]. Important theological debates also surrounded the various [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical Councils]] – [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] in 325, [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in 381, [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]] in 431 and [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] in 451 See also main articles on [[Patristics]] and [[Church Fathers]]. ===Medieval Christian theology=== While the Western Roman Empire declined and fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, centred on Constantinople, remained standing until 1453, and was the home of a wide range of theological activity that was seen as standing in strong continuity with the theology of the Patristic period; indeed the division between Patristic and Byzantine theology would not be recognised by many Orthodox theologians and historians. ====Before the Carolingian Empire==== When the [[Roman Empire#The end of the Western Empire|Western Roman Empire fragmented]] under the impact of various 'barbarian' invasions, the Empire-wide intellectual culture that had underpinned late Patristic theology had its interconnections cut. Theology tended to become more localised, more diverse, more fragmented. The classically-clothed Christianity preserved in Italy by men like [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]] and [[Cassiodorus]] was different from the vigorous [[Franks|Frankish]] Christianity documented by [[Gregory of Tours]] which was different again from the Christianity that flourished in [[Ireland]] and [[Northumbria]] in the [[7th century|seventh]] and [[8th century|eighth centuries]]. Throughout this period, theology tended to be a more [[monasticism|monastic]] affair, flourishing in monastic havens where the conditions and resources for theological learning could be maintained. ====Theology in the time of Charlemagne==== Both because it made communication between different Christian centres easier, and because there was a concerted effort by its rulers to encourage educational and religious reforms and to develop greater uniformity in Christian thought and practice across their territories, the establishment of the [[Carolingian Empire]] saw an explosion of theological inquiry, and theological controversy. Controversy flared, for instance, around 'Spanish [[Adoptionism]], around the views on predestination of [[Gottschalk (theologian)|Gottschalk]], or around the eucharistic views of [[Ratramnus]]. ====Before Scholasticism==== With the division and decline of the Carolingian Empire, notable theological activity was preserved in some of the Cathedral schools that had begun to rise to prominence under it – for instance at [[Auxerre]] in the [[9th century]] or [[Chartres]] in the [[11th century|11th]]. Intellectual influences from the Arabic world (including works of classical authors preserved by Islamic scholars) percolated into the Christian West via Spain, influencing such theologians as [[Gerbert of Aurillac]], who went on to become Pope Sylvester II and mentor to [[Otto III]]. (Otto was the fourth ruler of the Germanic [[Ottonian]] [[Holy Roman Empire]], successor to the Carolingian Empire). With hindsight, one might say that a new note was struck when a controversy about the meaning of the eucharist blew up around [[Berengar of Tours]] in the [[11th Century]]: hints of a new confidence in the intellectual investigation of the faith that perhaps foreshadowed the explosion of theological argument that was to take place in the twelfth century. ====Early Scholasticism and its contemporaries==== [[Anselm of Canterbury]] is sometimes misleadingly called the 'Father of Scholasticism' because of the prominent place that reason has in his theology; instead of establishing his points by appeal to authority, he presents arguments to demonstrate why it is that the things he believes on authority must be so. His particular approach, however, was not very influential in his time, and he kept his distance from the Cathedral Schools. We should look instead to the production of the [[gloss]] on Scripture associated with [[Anselm of Laon]], the rise to prominence of [[dialectic]] (middle subject of the medieval [[trivium (education)|trivium]]) in the work of Abelard, and the production by [[Peter Lombard]] of a collection of [[Sentences]] or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities. Scholasticism proper can be thought of as the kind of theology that emerges when, in the Cathedral schools and their successors, the tools of dialectic are pressed into use to comment upon, explain, and develop the gloss and the sentences. ====High Scholasticism and its contemporaries==== The 13th Century saw the attempted suppression of various groups perceived as heterodox, such as the [[Cathars]] and [[Waldensians]] and the associated rise of the [[mendicant orders]] (notably the [[Franciscan]]s and [[Dominican order|Dominicans]]), in part intended as a form of orthodox alternative to the heretical groups. Those two orders quickly became contexts for some of the most intense scholatsic theologizing, producing such 'high scholastic' theologians as [[Alexander of Hales]] (Franciscan) and [[Thomas Aquinas]] (Dominican), or the rather less obviously scholastic [[Bonaventure]] (Franciscan). The century also saw a flourishing of [[mysticism|mystical theology]], with women such as [[Mechthild of Magdeburg]] playing a prominent role. In addition, the century can be seen as period in which the study of natural philosophy that could anachronistically be called 'science' began once again to flourish in theological soil, in the hands of such men as [[Robert Grosseteste]] and [[Roger Bacon]]. ====Late Scholasticism and its contemporaries==== Scholastic theology continued to develop as the thirteenth century gave way to the fourteenth, becoming ever more complex and subtle in its distinctions and arguments. The fourteenth century saw in particular the rise to dominance of the [[nominalism|nominalist]] or [[voluntarism|voluntarist]] theologies of men like [[William of Ockham]]. The fourteenth century was also a time in which movements of widely varying character worked for the reform of the institutional church, such as [[conciliarism]], [[Lollardy]] and the [[Hussite]]s. Spiritual movements such as the [[Devotio Moderna]] also flourished. ''See also [[Scholasticism]]'' ===Reformation and Counter-Reformation Christian theology=== The [[Renaissance]] yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the [[Reformation]], a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of [[the Bible]]. Most important were [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], [[Zwingli]], [[Melanchthon]], [[Martin Bucer]] and the [[Anabaptists]]. Their Theology was developed by successors such as [[Theodore Beza]], the English [[Puritans]] and [[Francis Turretin]]. The Roman Catholic [[counter-reformation]] spearheaded by the [[Jesuits]] under [[Ignatius Loyola]] took their Theology from the decisions of the [[Council of Trent]]. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily. The fall of [[Constantinople]] in the East, [[1453]], led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of [[Russia]], the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "[[Old believers]]" consequently resulted and influenced [[Russian Orthodox Theology]] in the direction of [[conservatism]] and [[Erastianism]]. ===Modern Christian theology=== After the Reformation [[protestant]] groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new theologies. The "[[Enthusiasts]]" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the [[Methodists]], the [[Quakers]] and [[Baptists]]. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the [[Nicene creed]] and [[Chalcedonian Creed]]. these included [[Unitarians]] and [[Universalists]]. A major issue for Protestants became the degree to which Man contributes to his salvation. The debate is often viewied as [[synergism]] versus [[monergism]], though the labels [[Calvinist]] and [[Arminian]] are more frequently used, referring to the conclusion of the [[Synod of Dort]]. The [[Nineteenth century]] saw the rise of [[biblical criticism]], new knowledge of [[religious diversity]] in other continents and above all [[the growth of science]]. This led many church men to espouse a form of [[Deism]]. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of [[miracle]]s led to what is called "[[Classical liberalism|Classic Liberalism]]". Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two [[world wars]] and fell prey to the criticisms of [[postmodernism]]. [[Vladimir Lossky]] is a famous [[Eastern Orthodox]] theologian writing in the 20th century for the Greek church. ===Postmodern theology=== [[Postmodern theology]] seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the [[death of God]] movement, [[Process Theology]], [[Feminist theology]], [[Queer Theology]] and [[Neo-orthodox Theology]]. [[Karl Barth]], [[Rudolf Bultmann]] and [[Reinhold Niebuhr]] were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to [[existentialism]]. The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many [[reactionary]] movements amongst conservative believers. [[Evangelical theology]], Pentecostal or [[Renewal theology]] and [[Fundamentalist theology]], often combined with [[Dispensationalism]], all moved from the fringe into the academy. [[Marxism]] stimulated the significant rise of [[Liberation Theology]] which can be interpreted as a rejection of Academic Theology that fails to challenge [[the establishment]] and help the poor. From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from Protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], the [[Latter Day Saint]]s and many so called "[[cult]]s". Many of these groups use the Protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ. [[Ecumenical Theology]] sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many [[Christian denominations]] together. As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the [[World Council of Churches]] and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often Protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians. The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. [[Reform Judaism]] represents a liberal interpretation as against [[Orthodox Judaism]], and moderate or [[Liberal Islam]] continues to be theologically distinct from [[Islamic Fundamentalism]], notably its [[Wahhabism|Wahabi]] and [[Deobandi]] Schools. == Divisions of Christian theology == There are many methods of categorizing different approaches to Christian theology. === Sub-disciplines === Christian theologians may be specialists in one or more theological sub-disciplines. These are the kinds of phrases that one finds in certain job titles such as 'Professor of x', 'Senior Lecturer in y': * [[Apologetics]]/[[polemics]]—studying Christian theology as it compares to non-Christian [[worldview]]s in order to defend the faith and challenge beliefs that lie in contrast with Christianity * [[Biblical hermeneutics]]—interpretation of the [[Bible]], often with particular emphasis on the nature and constraints of contemporary interpretation * [[Biblical studies]]—interpretation of the Bible, often with particular emphasis on historical-critical investigation * [[Biblical theology]]—interpretation of the Bible, often with particular emphasis on links between biblical texts and the topics of systematic or dogmatic theology * [[Constructive theology]]—generally another name for [[systematic theology]]; also specifically a [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] approach to systematic theology, applying (among other things) [[feminist theory]], [[queer theory]], [[deconstruction]]ism, and [[hermeneutics]] to theological topics * [[Dogmatic theology]]—studying theology (or [[dogma]]) as it developed in different [[Christian denomination|church denominations]] * [[Ecumenical theology]]—comparing the doctrines of the diverse churches (such as Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and the various Protestant denominations) with the goal of promoting unity among them * [[Exegesis]]—interpretation of the Bible * [[Historical theology]]—studying Christian theology from an historical perspective * [[Homiletics]]—in theology the application of general principles of rhetoric to public preaching * [[Moral theology]]—explores the [[Morality|moral]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] dimensions of the religious life * [[Natural theology]]—the discussion of those aspects of theology that can be investigated without the help of revelation scriptures or tradition (sometimes contrasted with "positive theology") * [[Patristics]] or patrology—studies the teaching of [[Church Fathers]], or the development of Christian ideas and practice in the period of the Church Fathers * [[Philosophical theology]]—philosophical analysis of theological topics. * Pragmatic or [[practical theology]]—studying theology as it relates to everyday living and service to God, including serving as a [[religious minister]] * Spiritual theology—studying theology as a means to [[orthopraxy]]: [[Scripture]] and [[tradition]] are both used as guides for spiritual growth and discipline * [[Systematic theology]] (doctrinal theology, dogmatic theology or philosophical theology)—focused on the attempt to arrange and interpret the ideas current in the religion. This is also associated with constructive theology * [[Theological aesthetics]]—interdisciplinary study of [[theology]] and [[aesthetics]] / [[the arts]] * [[Theological Hermeneutics]] - the study of the manner of construction of theological formulations. Related to theological methodology. === Major topics === These topics crop up repeatedly and often in Christian theology; composing the main recurrent 'loci' around which Christian theological discussion revolves. * [[Bible]]--the nature and means of its [[inspiration]], etc.; including [[hermeneutics]] (the development and study of theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts) * [[Christian eschatology|Eschatology]]—the study of the ''last things'', or [[end times]]. Covers subjects such as death and the [[afterlife]], the end of [[history]], the end of the [[world]], the [[last judgment]], the nature of [[hope]] and progress, etc. * [[Christology]]—the study of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]], of his nature(s), and of the relationship between his divinity and humanity; * [[Creation (theology)|Creation theology]] * [[Divine providence]] - the study of sovereignty, superintendence, or agency of God over events in people's lives and throughout history. * [[Ecclesiology]] (sometimes a subsection of missiology)—the study of the [[Christian Church]], including the [[institution|institutional structure]], [[sacraments]] and practices (especially the [[worship]] of God) thereof *[[Mariology]], area of theology concerned with Mary, the Mother of Christ. * [[Missiology]] (sometimes a subsection of ecclesiology)—God's will in the world, missions, evangelism, etc. * [[Pneumatology]]—the study of the [[Holy Spirit]], sometimes also 'geist' as in Hegelianism and other philosophico-theological systems * [[Soteriology]]—the study of the nature and means of [[salvation]]. May include [[Hamartiology]] (the study of [[sin]]), [[Law and Gospel]] (the study of the relationship between [[Old Testament#Christian view of the Law|Divine Law]] and [[Divine Grace]], justification, sanctification * [[Theological anthropology]]—the study of [[Human nature|humanity]], especially as it relates to the divine * [[Theology Proper]]—the study of [[God]]'s attributes, nature, and relation to the world. May include: ** [[Theodicy]]--attempts at reconciling the existence of [[evil]] and suffering in the world with the nature and justice of God ** [[Apophatic theology]]--negative theology which seeks to describe God by negation (e.g. [[immutable]], [[impassible]] ). It is the discussion of what God is ''not'', or the investigation of how language about God breaks down (See [[the nature of God in Western theology]]). Apophatic theology often is contrasted with "[[Cataphatic theology]]." ==== A traditional pattern ==== {| width="100%" |- valign=top | width="50%"| In many Christian seminaries, the four Great Departments of Theology are: # [[Exegetical theology]] # [[Historical theology]] # [[Systematic theology]] # [[Practical theology]] The four departments can usefully be subdivided in the following way:<br> '''1. Exegetical theology:''' * [[Biblical studies]] (analysis of the contents of Scripture) * Biblical introduction (inquiry into the origins of the Bible) * [[Biblical canon|Canonics]] (inquiry into how the different books of the Bible came to be collected together) * [[Biblical theology]] (inquiry into how divine revelation progressed over the course of the Bible). '''2. Historical theology (study of how Christian theology develops over time):''' * The [[Patristics|Patristic Period]] (1st through 8th centuries) ** The [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] (1st to 3rd centuries) ** The [[Nicene]] Fathers (4th century) ** The [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers|Post-Nicene Fathers]] (5th to 8th centuries) * The [[Middle Ages]] (8th to 16th centuries) * The [[Reformation]] and [[Counter-Reformation]] (16th to 18th centuries) * The Modern Period (18th to 21st centuries) | width="50%"| '''3. Systematic theology:''' * Prolegomena (first principles) * [[Theology Proper]] ** The existence of God ** The attributes of God ** The [[Trinity]] ** [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] ** [[Divine Providence]] * [[Doctrine of Man]] (theological anthropology) * [[Christology]] * [[Soteriology]] ** [[Justification (theology)|Justification]] ** [[Sanctification]] * [[Pneumatology]] (doctrine of the [[Holy Spirit]]) * [[Ecclesiology]] (doctrine of the Church) * [[Eschatology]] and the [[afterlife]]. '''4. Practical theology:''' * [[Moral theology]] (Christian ethics and casuistry) * [[Ecclesiology]] * [[Pastoral theology]] ** [[Liturgics]] ** Homiletics ** [[Christian education]] ** [[Christian counseling]] * [[Missiology]]. |} === Roman Catholic theology === One important branch of Christian theology is [[Roman Catholic theology]] which has these major teachings: * [[Absolution (religious)|Absolution]] (sacerdotal remittance of sin); * The [[Apostolic Succession]] (i.e., of bishops and/or the Pope from the original Apostles); * [[Infant Baptism]]; * [[Ecumenism]] (the move to reunite churches); * [[Icon]] [[veneration]]; * The [[Immaculate Conception]] of Mary; * [[Indulgences]] (i.e., remissions by the Church of some penalties for sin); * [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] (Mary as [[Theotokos]] (the idea that was therefore the "Mother of God"; as perpetually [[virgin]]; the [[Assumption of Mary]]; * The [[Pope]] (i.e., belief that the Pope is the successor of [[St. Peter]], the "rock" on which the Church is built, and therefore the infallible head of Christendom); * [[Purgatory]] (a "holding place" after death where souls are purified before entering heaven); * [[Sacerdotalism]] (priesthood as intermediary and sacred office); * The [[Sacrament]]s; [[Transubstantiation]]; * [[Sainthood]] and [[canonization]]; * [[Papal Infallibility]] (the Pope being [[infallible]] on matters of religion and morality); * [[Traditionalism|Tradition]] (i.e., its authority relative to Scripture). === Controversial movements === Christians have had theological disagreements since the time of [[Jesus]]. Theological disputes have given rise to many [[Schism (religion)|schism]]s and different [[Christian denomination]]s, sects and movements. Sometimes theological studies have taken place in universities under secular, often anti-Christan authority. Theology done in such a manner is extremely suspect if no attempt is made to obtain wide feedback from the actual Christian community. In the extreme case a schizophrenic belief system is created which is completely out of touch with the reality of daily life. ==== Pre-Reformation ==== * [[Arianism]]: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity; * [[Donatist|Donatism]] * [[Ebionites|Ebionitism]] * [[Gnosticism]]: Generally rejected the goodness of the physical to emphasize the spiritual, also emphasized "hidden teachings." * [[Judaizers]] * [[Manichaeism]] * [[Marcionism]] * [[Monarchianism]]: doctrines regarding Christ's [[divinity]] * [[Monophysitism]]: doctrines regarding Christ's divinity * [[Montanism]] * [[Nazarenes]] * [[Nicolationism]] * [[Nontrinitarianism]] * [[Novatianism]] * [[Pelagianism]]: denial of original sin and helplessness of sinner to save himself, strong affirmation of libertarian free will (see also [[Semi-Pelagianism]]) * [[Quartodecimanism]]: [[Easter controversy]] * [[Sabellianism]]: doctrines regarding the Trinity, also known as "[[modalism]]." * [[Simonianism]] ==== Post-Reformation ==== Since the Reformation emphasized the rights of Christians to expound their own views of theology, most theological distinctions have occurred between the various Protestant denominations. Some elaboration of Roman Catholic doctrines; however, have been promulgated since that time. The differences between many of the denominations are relatively minor, and this has helped [[ecumenical]] efforts in recent times. * [[Adventism]]: Typified by the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. * [[Anabaptism]] * [[Anglican doctrine|Anglicanism]] * [[Anglo-Catholicism]]: [[High church]] theology of [[Anglican]]ism. * [[Arminianism]]: Reaction to Calvinist [[soteriology]], which affirms man's freedom to accept or reject God's gift of salvation; identified with [[Dutch Reformed]] theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]], developed by [[Hugo Grotius]], defended by the [[Remonstrants]], and popularized by [[John Wesley]]. Key doctrine of Anglican and [[Methodist]] churches, adopted by many [[Baptist]]s and some [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]s. * Brethrenism: Anabaptist-Pietist, with Open and Exclusive streams. * [[Calvinism]]: System of soteriology advanced by [[France|French]] [[Protestant Reformers|Reformer]] [[John Calvin]], which espouses [[Augustinian]] views on election and reprobation; stresses absolute [[predestination]], the sovereignty of God and the inability of man to effect his own salvation by believing the Gospel prior to [[regeneration]]; principle doctrines are often summarized by the acronym [[TULIP]] (see [[Canons of Dort]]). * [[Charismatic movement|Charismaticism]]: Movement in many Protestant and some Catholic churches that emphasizes the [[gifts of the Spirit]] and the continual working of the Holy Spirit within the body of Christ; often associated with [[glossolalia]] (i.e., speaking in tongues) and [[divine healing]]. * [[Congregationalism]]: Form of governance used in Congregationalist, Baptist, and Pentecostal churches in which each congregation is self-governing and independent of all others. * [[Counter-Reformation]] (or Catholic Reformation): The Roman Catholic response to the [[Protestant Reformation]] (see also [[Council of Trent]]). * [[Creation Spirituality]]: [[Panentheist]] theology. * [[Deism]]: The general doctrine that no faith is necessary for justified belief in God's existence and/or the doctrine that God does not intervene in earthly affairs (contrasts with [[Fideism]]). * [[Dispensationalism]]: Belief in a conservative, Biblically literalist [[hermeneutic]] and [[philosophy of history]] that, by stressing the dichotomy between Israel and the Church, rejects supercessionism (commonly referred to as "replacement theology"). * [[Evangelicalism]]: Typically conservative, predominantly Protestant outlook that prioritizes [[evangelism]] above all or most other activities of the Church (see also [[neo-evangelicalism]]). *[[Fideism]]: The doctrine that faith is irrational, that God's existence transcends logic, and that all knowledge of God is on the basis of faith (contrasts with [[Deism]]). * [[Latitudinarian]]ism: Broad church theology of Anglicanism. * [[Liberalism]]: Belief in interpreting the Bible to allow for the maximum amount of individual freedom. * [[Low church]]: [[Puritan]]ical / [[evangelicalism|Evangelical]] theology of Anglicanism. * [[Methodism]]: Form of church governance and doctrine used in the [[Methodist Church]]. * [[Modernism]]: Belief that truth changes, so doctrine must evolve in light of new information or trends. * [[Latter Day Saint movement]] ([[Mormonism]]): Belief that the [[Book of Mormon]] and others to be additional divine scriptures; belief in living prophets; generally reject the [[Nicene creed]] and other early creeds. Regarded as a distinct religion or a pseudo-Christian religion by most Christian churches. * [[New Thought]]: Movement based on 19th century [[New England]] belief in positive thinking. Several denominations arose from it including [[Unity Church]], and [[Religious Science]]. * [[Nonconformism]]: Advocacy of religious liberty; includes Quakers, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Salvationists. * [[Nontrinitarianism]]: Rejection of the doctrine of [[Trinity]]. * [[Open Theism]]: A rejection of the Classical Greek attributes of God. * [[Pentecostalism]] * [[Pietism]]: A stream of [[Lutheran]]ism placing renewed emphasis on the Bible and a universal priesthood of all believers. * [[Presbyterianism]]: Form of governance used in Presbyterian and Reformed churches. * [[Puritanism]]: Movement to cleanse Episcopalianism of any "ritualistic" aspects. * [[Supersessionism]]: Belief that the Christian Church, the body of Christ, is the only elect people of God in the new covenant age (see also [[covenant theology]]). * [[Restoration Movement]]: 19th century attempt to return to a [[New Testament]] model of the Church. * [[Restorationism]]: The doctrine that most of the modern Church is apostate; includes the [[Millerites]], [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and Latter Day Saints. * [[Salvation Army]]: An offshoot of the Methodist Church known for its charitable activities * [[Tractarianism]]: [[Oxford Movement]]. It led to Anglo-Catholicism. * [[Ultramontanism]]: A movement within 19th-century Roman Catholicism to emphasize papal authority, particularly in the wake of the French Revolution and the secularization of the state * [[Unification Church]] * [[Unitarianism]]: Rejects a holy "Trinity" and also the divinity of Christ, with some exceptions (see [[modalism]]). * [[Universalism]]: In various forms, the belief that all people will ultimately be reconciled with God; most famously defended by [[Origen]]. ==== Contemporary Theological movements ==== In addition to the movements listed above, the following are some of the movements found amongst Christian theologians: * [[Black theology]] * [[Christian anarchism|Anarchism]] * [[Conservative Christianity]]. * [[Covenant Theology]], an interpretive grid that understands God's plans in the Old and New Testaments as being a result of God's covenant with his chosen people. Covenant theology is one way to approach the subdiscipline of biblical theology; compare to Dispensationalism. * [[Dispensationalism]]—an interpretative grid that views God's relationship with the created order as passing through successive "dispensations," in each of which the covenants of the previous era may no longer be valid. Dispensationalism is one way to approach the subdiscipline of biblical theology; compare to Covenant Theology. * [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] * [[Emerging church]] * [[Evangelicalism]] * [[Feminist theology]] * [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalism]] * [[Holocaust theology]] (In response to the horrors of [[the Holocaust]] especially in relation to [[Theodicy]]) * [[Liberal Christianity#Liberal theology|Liberal theology]] * [[Liberation theology]] * [[Lutheranism]] * [[Methodism]] * [[Narrative theology]]—studying a narrative presentation of the faith rather than dogmatic development. * [[Neo-orthodoxy]] (also known as "dialectical theology" and "crisis theology", stemming from the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Karl Barth]]) * [[New Church]] * [[New Covenant Theology]] * [[Paleo-Orthodoxy]] * [[Pentecostalism]] * [[Personalism]] * [[Postliberal theology]] * [[Postmodern theology]] * [[Process theology]] * [[Progressive Christianity|Progressive theology]] * [[Queer Theology]] * [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakerism]] * [[Restoration Movement|Restorationism]] * Revisionist theology * [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] * [[Thomism]] * [[Transcendental Theology]] == Notes == {{reflist}} == References == * Andcone, J.H., eds. ''Black Theology; A Documentary History, 1966–1979.'' Orbis Books, 1979 * Appiah-Kubi, K and Torres, S., eds. ''African Theology en Route,'' Orbis Books, 1979 * Bonino, J.M. ''Doing theology in a Revolutionary situation,'' Philadelphia:Fortress Press, 1975. * ''Christian Theology Reader'' by [[Alister McGrath]]. ISBN 0–631–20637-X * ''Christian Theology: An Introduction'' by [[Alister McGrath]]. ISBN 0–631–22528–5 * Elwood, D.J., ed. ''Asian Christian Theology; Emerging Themes.'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1979 * Fuller, Reginald H. [[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology (1965)|''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'']] (1965). ISBN 0–684–15532-X * Gonzalez, Justo L. ''The Story of Christianity'' (1984, 1985, 1999). ISBN 1–56563–522–1) * Hill, Jonathan 2003) ''The History of Christian Thought''. ISBN 0–7459–5093–0 and 0830827765 * Koyama, Kosuke, Waterbuffalo Theology. Orbis books, 1974 * Leith, John H. ''Introduction to the Reformed Tradition'' (1978). ISBN 0–8042–0479–9) * Miranda, J. ''Being and the Messiah.'' Orbis Books, 1974. * Moore, B., ed. ''The Challenge of Black Theology in South Africa.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1974. * Muzorewa, H. ''African Theology: Its Origin and Development.'' Orbis Books, 1984. * Sobrino, J. ''Christology on the Crossroads.'' Orbis Books, 1978 * ''Systematic Theology'', an [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical]] trilogy by [[Thomas Oden]] ** Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992). ISBN 0–06–066363–4 ** Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992). ISBN 0–06–066364–2 ** Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994). ISBN 0–06–066362–6 == See also == * [[Biblical canon]] * [[Christian anarchism]] * [[Christian ecumenism]] * [[Christian worship]] * [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] * [[Ecumenism]] * [[Emerging Church]] * [[Fundamentalist Christianity]] * [[Heresy]] * [[Liberal Christianity]] * [[List of Christian theologians]] * [[List of Methodist theologians]] * [[Neo-Orthodoxy]] * [[Protestant Reformation]] * [[Roman Catholicism]] * [[Theology]] * [[Wesleyan Quadrilateral]] * [[Word of Faith]] {{Christianityfooter}} [[Category:Christian theology|*]] [[ar:علم اللاهوت]] [[bg:Християнска теология]] [[da:Kristen teologi]] [[de:Christliche Theologie]] [[es:Teología cristiana]] [[fr:Théologie chrétienne]] [[ia:Theologia christian]] [[he:תאולוגיה נוצרית]] [[lb:Chrëschtlech Theologie]] [[no:Kristen teologi]] [[nn:Kristen teologi]] [[pt:Teologia cristã]] [[ro:Teologie creştină]] [[simple:Christian theology]] [[sk:Kresťanská teológia]] [[fi:Kristillinen teologia]] [[th:คริสต์ศาสนวิทยา]] [[tr:Hıristiyan teolojisi]]