Christianity in Korea
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[[Image:Yoido Full Gospel Church.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Yoido Full Gospel Church]], Seoul]]
The practice of '''Christianity in Korea''' has a relatively short history, but after a difficult beginning it has seen significant growth and success. The deeply-rooted traditional religions of [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]], [[Korean Shamanism|Shamanism]] and [[Korean Confucianism|Confucianism]] held strong for many centuries and have been challenged by [[Christianity]] in a meaningful way only since 1784 when the first [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] prayer-house was established in [[Korea]]. [[Protestantism]] followed in 1884, but growth of both sects was slow until the middle of the [[20th century|twentieth century]]. Since then, a number of factors have encouraged the growth of Christianity in Korean culture, and its growth since the 1960s has been significant enough that the number of adherents to Christianity surpassed that of adherents to the aforementioned traditional religions. The Korean [[Christian church|church]] has not been entirely free of controversy, but overall is still strong, despite recent trends of decline among Korean youth.<ref>[http://www.omf.org/omf/uk/about_asia/countries/korea/south_korea_profile Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year]</ref>
== Size and cultural significance ==
Prior to the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953, two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most subsequently fled to the South.{{ref|intro1}} It is not known how many Christians remain in [[North Korea]] today, and there is some confusion about the exact number in [[South Korea]] as well. It is known that by the end of the 1960s, there were barely one million Protestants in South Korea, but during the "Conversion Boom" period ending in the 1980s, the number of Protestants increased faster than in any other country [http://www.tparents.org/Library/Religion/Cta/Korean-Christianity.htm][http://www.kf.or.kr/KoreaFocus/essays.asp?vol=29&no=817§ion=4]. According to the CIA's World Factbook, Christians and Buddhists today each comprise 26% of the population of South Korea[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html], while a Protestant research group's Religious Yearbook 1995 puts the figure at over 40% [http://www.geocities.com/~iarf/tedesco1.html]. Other sources claim that about 49% of the population are Christians [http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm/skorea.htm]. The discrepancies arise because a large proportion of the population does not maintain official membership in a specific [[religion]], regardless of the group in which they are active.
In 2005, one source showed that about 18% of the population of South Korea professed to be Protestants and around 10% called themselves Roman Catholics <ref>[http://www.newsnjoy.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=17072]</ref>, the second highest percentages in [[Asia]]. Surveys have shown that South Korean Christians are very active in their religion, quite often exceeding their American counterparts in frequency of attendance at group worship services.<ref>[http://www.zogbyworldwide.com/int/readnewswire.cfm?ID=724]</ref> [[Seoul]] contains eleven of the world's twelve largest Christian congregations. South Korea also provides the world's second largest number of Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], surpsassed only by the [[United States]]. South Korean missionaries are particularly prevalent in [[10/40 Window]] nations that are hostile to Westerners. In 2000, there were 10,646 Protestant South Korean missionaries in 156 countries, along with an undisclosed number of Catholic missionaries. A number of South Korean Christians, including [[David Yonggi Cho]] (조용기), senior pastor of [[Yoido Full Gospel Church]], have attained worldwide prominence. The 1984 visit by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] marked the first [[canonization]] ceremony to be held outside of [[Rome]] and the largest number of [[saint]]s ever to be canonized at one time.
== Early struggles: 1593-1784 ==
Christianity was established on Korean soil only after nearly two centuries of failed efforts, and another two centuries passed before Christianity became numerically significant. The first known Christian in Korea was [[Konishi Yukinaga]], who was one of the commanders of the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)|Japanese invasions of Korea]] in the 1590s. He took a Korean girl later known as Julia Ota-a ([[:ja:ジュリアおたあ|ジュリアおたあ]]) back to [[Japan]] with him and she later became one of the first Korean Christians.<ref>[http://www.tourism.metro.tokyo.jp/english/topics/060518/4.html Julia Festival], [[Kozushima]], [[Tokyo Metropolitan Government]]</ref> Father [[Gregorious de Cespedes]], a [[Jesuit]] [[priest]], visited Konishi in Korea in 1593 to work among Japanese [[expatriate]]s, but he was not permitted to [[proselytism|proselytize]] Koreans.{{ref|early1}}
A decade later, however, the Korean diplomat [[Yi Gwang-jeong]] (이광정) returned from [[Beijing]] carrying a world [[atlas]] and several [[theology|theological]] books written by [[Matteo Ricci]], a Jesuit missionary to [[China]].{{ref|early2}} He began disseminating the information in his books and from these beginnings the first real seeds of Christianity were sown. The seeds didn't germinate immediately though. Christianity faltered along in Korea over the following two centuries before the Catholic church was finally able to gain a foothold in 1784. Even after this time Korean Christians dealt with persecution and hardship but, contrary to what logic might predict, persecution has been known historically to strengthen the faith of believers and increase the influence of the church.<ref>[http://bgc.gospelcom.net/emis/2005/persecution.html]</ref> Many were [[martyr]]ed, the most famous of whom was [[Andrew Kim Taegon]], who was beheaded in 1846 at the age of 25 for his practice of a foreign religion. Christianity continued to gain adherents despite the persecution, and in 1884 [[Henry Appenzeller]], a [[Methodism|Methodist]], and [[Horace Underwood]], a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], both from the United States, introduced Protestantism to Korea.{{ref|protestantism1}}
== Factors encouraging the growth of Christianity ==
=== Academic sympathy: The Silhak school ===
Matteo Ricci's books provoked immediate [[academia|academic]] controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea, and academics remained critical for many years. Early in the [[17th century|seventeenth century]], [[Yi Su-gwang]], a court scholar, and [[Yu Mong-in]] (유몽인), a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical [[literary criticism|commentaries]] on Ricci's works, and over the next two centuries academic criticism of Christian beliefs continued unabated.
Some scholars, however, were more sympathetic to Christianity. Members of the [[Silhak]] (실학; "practical learning") school believed in in social structure based on merit rather than birth, and were therefore often bitterly opposed by the mainstream academic establishment. Silhak scholars saw Christianity as an [[ideology|ideological]] basis for their beliefs and were therefore attracted to what they saw as the [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]] values of Christianity.{{ref|academic1}} Thus, when Christianity was finally established in Korea, there was already a substantial body of educated opinion sympathetic to it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s.{{ref|academic2}} An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school.{{ref|academic3}} This [[philosophy|philosophical]] sympathy for Christianity among the educated [[elite]] greatly facilitated its growth in Korea.
=== Lay leadership ===
Largely as a result of the influence of the Silhak school, Christianity in Korea began as an [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[laity|lay]] movement rather than being imposed by a foreign [[ecclesiastical]] [[hierarchy]]. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at [[Pyongyang]] by [[Yi Sung-hun]], a [[diplomat]] who had been [[baptism|baptized]] in [[Beijing]].{{ref|lay1}} In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests.{{ref|lay2}} Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of lay-priests violated [[Canon Law]], Christianity was introduced into Korea by indigenous lay-workers, not by foreign [[prelate]]s. Since Christianity began as largely a "grass-roots" effort in Korea, it naturally spread more quickly through the population than it would if it had originated with outsiders with no initial popular support.
=== Hangul, literacy, and education ===
[[Hangul]], a [[phonemic orthography|phonemic]] Korean [[alphabet]] invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of [[King Sejong]] ,{{ref|education1}}{{ref|education2}} was little used for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of the [[Chinese language]]. However, true to its academic legacy, the Catholic church became the first Korean organization to recognize officially the value of using Hangul, and [[Simeon-Francois Berneux|Bishop Berneux]] mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it.{{ref|education1}}{{ref|use1}} Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, predominantly used the Korean language and the easily-learned Hangul [[writing system|script]]. This combination of factors not only resulted in a sharp rise in the overall [[literacy]] rate, but also enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who predominantly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the [[Gospels]] appeared in Hangul; [[doctrine|doctrinal]] books such as the [[Jugyo Yoji]] (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic [[hymnary]] was printed around 1800.
[[John Ross]], a [[Scotland|Scottish]] Presbyterian missionary in [[Manchuria]] completed his translation of the [[Bible]] into Korean in 1887 and Protestant leaders immediately began emphasizing its mass-circulation. In addition, they established the first modern educational institutions in Korea.{{ref|protestantism2}} The Presbyterian [[Pai Chai University|Paichai School]] (배재고등학교) for boys was founded in 1885, and the Methodist Ewha School (이화여자고등학교) for girls (later to become [[Ewha Womans University]]) followed in 1886. These, and similar schools established soon afterwards, facilitated the rapid expansion of Protestantism among the common people, and in time Protestantism surpassed Catholicism as the largest Christian group in Korea. As a side effect during this period, female literacy rose sharply, since women had previously been excluded from the educational system.{{ref|education3}}
=== Parallels in Korean tradition ===
The spread of Christianity in Korea was aided by the similarity of certain Christian doctrines with a number of Korean [[tradition]]s. Unlike prevailing Chinese and Japanese religions of the time, Shamanist Koreans had an essentially [[monotheism|monotheistic]] concept of a Creator-God,{{ref|parallel1}} whom they called [[Hwanin|Hwan-in]] or Hanal-nim (하날님) (later also Haneul-nim, 하늘님/하느님, or Haneu-nim, 하나님). According to an ancient [[myth]], Hwan-in had a son named Hwan-ung (환웅) who, in turn, had fathered a human son named [[Tangun]] in 2333 BC.{{ref|parallel2}}{{ref|parallel3}}{{ref|parallel4}} According to the story, Tangun founded the Korean [[nation]] and taught his people the elements of civilization during his thousand-year reign.{{ref|parallel5}} There are several variants of this myth, one of which depicts Tangun as having been mothered by a [[virgin]]{{ref|parallel6}}, although this may be a later Christian embellishment. Some modern theologians have even attempted to explain the Christian concept of the [[Trinity]] in terms of the three divine characters in the Tangun myth.{{ref|parallel7}} These parallels psychologically prepared the Korean people to accept various Christian teachings, such as the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of [[Jesus]].
=== Identification with Korean nationalism ===
One of the most important factors leading to widespread acceptance of Christianity in Korea was the identification that many Christians forged with the cause of [[Korean nationalism]] during the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese occupation]] of 1905 through 1945. During this period, seven million Koreans were [[exile]]d or [[deportation|deported]]{{ref|identification1}} and a systematic campaign of [[cultural assimilation]] was attempted. In 1938, even use of the Korean language was prohibited.{{ref|identification2}} However, the distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. Furthermore, while the subsequent [[constitution]] of South Korea guarantees [[freedom of religion]] as well as [[separation of church and state]], the [[South Korean government]] has been favorable overall to Christianity, regarding the religion as an ideological bulwark against [[Communism]].
On [[1 March]], [[1919]], an assembly of thirty-three religious and professional leaders known as the "[[March 1 Movement]]" passed a [[Declaration of Independence]]. Although organized by leaders of the [[Chondogyo]] (천도교) religion, fifteen of the thirty-three signatories happened to be Protestants{{ref|identification3}}, and many of them were subsequently imprisoned. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called "[[Ulmindan]]" (울민단) ([[Righteous People's Army]]){{ref|identification4}} was founded, and a [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea|China-based government-in-exile]] was established by [[Syngman Rhee]] (이승만), a Methodist.{{ref|identification5}}
Christianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when Christians refused to participate in [[emperor worship|worship]] of the [[Emperor of Japan|Japanese Emperor]], which was required by law in the 1930s.{{ref|identification6}}{{ref|identification7}} Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation. This show of resistance to the occupying nation enabled Koreans to see past the foreign origins of Christianity and accept it as their own.
===Minjung theology ===
{{Main|Minjung theology}}
The Christian concept of individual worth has also found expression in a lengthy struggle for human rights and democracy in Korea. In recent years, this struggle has taken the form of [[Minjung theology]]. Minjung theology is based on the "image of God" concept expressed in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=gen%201:26-27&version=31 Genesis 1:26-27], but also incorporates the traditional Korean feeling of ''[[Han (cultural)|han]]'', a word that has no exact English translation, but that denotes a sense of inconsolable pain and utter helplessness. Minjung theology depicts commoners in Korean history as the rightful masters of their own destiny. Two of the country's best known political leaders, [[Kim Young-sam]], a Presbyterian, and [[Kim Dae-jung]], a Roman Catholic, subscribe to Minjung theology.{{ref|minjung1}} Both men spent decades opposing military governments in South Korea and were frequently imprisoned as a result, and both also served terms as President of the Republic after democracy was restored in 1988.
One manifestation of Minjung theology in the final years of the Park Chung-hee regime (1961-1979) was the rise of several Christian social missions, such as the [[Catholic Farmers Movement]] and the Protestant [[Urban Industrial Mission]], which campaigned for better wages and working conditions for laborers. The military government imprisoned many of their leaders because it considered the movement a threat to social stability, and their struggle coincided with a period of popular unrest which culminated in the [[assassination]] of President Park on [[October 26]], 1979,{{ref|minjung2}}. However, even this period of turmoil affected the growth of Christianity to the degree that Koreans saw it as a source of stability in a difficult time.
=== Social change ===
Many Korean Christians believe that their values have had a significant positive effect on various social relationships. Traditional Korean society was hierarchically arranged according to Confucian principles under the semi-divine emperor. Women had no social rights,{{ref|social1}} children were totally subservient to their parents,{{ref|social2}} and individuals had no rights except as defined by the overall social system. This structure was radically challenged by the Christian teaching that all men are created in the image of God and thus that every individual has implicit worth. Closely aligned to this concept is an emphasis on the right to own private property.{{ref|social3}}
Christians regarded the emperor as a mere man who was as much under God's authority as were his subjects,{{ref|social4}} and Christian values also favored the social emancipation of women and children.{{ref|social5}}{{ref|social6}} The church permitted the remarriage of widows (not traditionally allowed in East Asian societies), prohibited concubinage and polygamy, and forbade cruelty to or desertion of wives.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Christian parents were taught to regard their children as gifts from God, and were required to educate them.{{ref|social7}} Arranged child marriages and the neglect of daughters (who were often regarded as less desirable than sons in Asian culture) were prohibited.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} To the extent that these changes were judged favorable by Koreans, and to the extent that Koreans associated them with Christianity, they have been influential in attracting new converts.
This correlation is not necessarily valid when one considers worldwide social statistics, both current and historical. In Christian-based societies of previous centuries ([[medieval Europe]], for example), social rights of individuals, especially women and children, were much more limited than those of the West of recent centuries. Social class divisions have also been common in cultures that are favorable to Christianity. Thus, from a purely empirical perspective, it is not entirely appropriate to compare the social atmosphere of pre-Christian Korea to modern Western cultures. However, statistical comparisons are largely irrelevant to religious belief and its effect on the social impact of the belief. To the extent that Christianity is believed by its adherents to be a cure for social ills, that belief alone can increase the success of Christianity in the culture.
=== Economic success ===
South Korea's rapid economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s is usually credited to the policy of [[export-oriented industrialization]] led by [[Park Chung Hee|Park Chung-hee]] (박정희), who was a devout Buddhist. But many South Korean Christians view their religious faith as a factor in the country's dramatic economic growth over the past three decades, believing that its success and prosperity are indications of God's blessing. It is, of course, difficult to isolate this factor from the effects of other influences such as indigenous cultural [[values]] and [[work ethic]], a strong alliance with the United States, and the infusion of foreign [[capital (economics)]].
A 2003 study by economists Robert J. Barro and Rachel McCleary [http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/barro/papers/Religion_and_Economic_Growth.pdf] suggests that societies with high levels of belief in heaven and low levels of church attendance also exhibit high rates of economic growth. Barro and McCleary's model has been influential in subsequent scholarship and, to some observers [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/bizfocus/archives/2004/02/01/2003097097][http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70913FE355C0C728FDDA80894DC404482], it supports the belief that Christianity has played a major role in South Korea's economic success. The study has also been criticised by scholars such as Durlauf, Kortellos, and Tan (2006), who argue on statistical grounds that there is little evidence connecting religion and economic growth either directly or indirectly [http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/econ/archive/wp2006-09.pdf].
Any research, however, no matter which side of the issue it supports, is irrelevant to the fact that the confidence of South Korean Christians in the social and economic benefits of their faith has been a factor in the spread of Christianity in South Korea. There is much appreciation in South Korea for the statistical growth, impressive organization, and attractive buildings [http://www.us.omf.org/content.asp?id=23595] that are enjoyed by many Christian groups. People quite naturally want to associate themselves with prosperity and success, and insofar as they see Christianity as the source of those things, they will be more likely to accept it as an important influence in their lives.
== Controversies ==
Despite the general positive environment for Christian activity in South Korea, some church leaders have been criticized for various issues. For example, some have allegedly had [[adultery|extramarital affairs]] with members of their churches. One such incident was brought to public attention on [[1 December]], [[2003]], when [[Jang Hyo-Hee]], the leader of the [[Christian Council of Korea]] (한국기독교총연합회), Korea's largest Christian organization, [http://www.newsnjoy.co.kr/news/read.php?idxno=6630 jumped to his death] from an office block. This was said to have happened because the husband of a woman with whom Jang was allegedly having an affair was trying to enter the room where they had been together.
There also have been cases of leaders of large churches passing the leadership of their churches to their sons, an action that is considered inappropriate by many Christians. In addition, the ownership of the church itself is sometimes changed from one such leader to another, like any other business. Among the most extreme cases, [[Kim Hong-Do (minister)|Kim Hong-Do]], Chief Pastor of [[Kumran Church]] at [[Mangwoo-dong]], Seoul, was indicted on charges of fraud and embezzlement in a case involving $3.2 billion on [[28 April]] 2006.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} He attempted to transfer leadership of his church to his son, who currently serves as Associate Pastor.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
Some extreme [[fundamentalist]] Christians have been accused of inflicting damage on Buddhist temples and statues.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} There are reported cases of Christian army officers forcing their subordinates to attend religious services on base whether or not they are Christians.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In addition, some have created their own churches with the goal of receiving large amounts of money from the believers, especially the [[tithe]], which is 10% of a person's income.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
== Looking ahead ==
South Korea's transition from forty years of [[authoritarianism]] (interrupted only once, in the short-lived [[Second Republic]] (1960-1961){{ref|looking1}} to a more [[social liberalism|liberal]], [[democracy|democratic]] [[regime]] in 1988 left South Korea's churches facing a new challenge. Their strong stand for [[human rights]] and democracy had always been a significant part of their appeal to the Korean population, and had helped facilitate the [[exponential growth]] of many churches in the 1970s and early 1980s.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} With the advent of democracy, which made Christians a part of the mainstream as never before, many Christians feel that the church had become a victim of its own success, as freedom and prosperity lead to widespread complacency and loss of the churches' incisiveness. Church growth tapered off for the first time in decades. One government census puts the number of Protestants at 623,072 (1960), 10,312,813 (1990), and 8,620,000 (2005).{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Each year over 3,000 small churches are closed.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In the same period that Christianity has experienced some decline in South Korea, there has been a strong rise in interest in new religions and in Buddhism.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
In the early years of the [[21st century|twenty-first century]], however, many Christians have expressed a renewed determination to evangelize the nation, with the bold goal of establishing the [[Korean Peninsula]] as a bastion of Christianity on the Asian mainland.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} This vision encompasses North Korea so, given the current economic and political instability in North Korea, South Korean churches are developing contingency plans to mobilize both spiritual and humanitarian resources to aid the North.{{Fact|date=March 2007}}
== See also ==
*[[List of Korea-related topics]]
*[[Roman Catholicism in Korea]]
*[[Protestantism in Korea]]
*[[Religion in Korea]]
*[[Korean Buddhism]]
*[[Korean Shamanism]]
*[[Islam in Korea]]
*[[Unification Church]]
*[[Christianity in China]]
*[[Christianity in Japan]]
*[[Reformed churches]]
*[[Korean Contemporary Christian music]]
== Sources ==
=== Numbered references ===
{{reflist}}
#{{note|intro1}} Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, [[Operation World]], Carlisle, Cumbria, and Waynesboro, GA., 2001, pp. 387-390.
#{{note|early1}} CHOI Suk-woo, 'Korean Catholicism Yesterday and Today', <u>Korean Journal</u> XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 4.
#{{note|early2}} KIM Han-sik, 'The Influence of Christianity', <u>Korean Journal</u> XXIII, 12, December 1983, p. 5.
#{{note|academic1}} Ibid., pp. 6-7.
#{{note|academic2}} Ibid., p. 6.
#{{note|academic3}} KIM Ok-hy, 'Women in the History of Catholicism in Korea', [[Korean Journal]] XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 30.
#{{note|lay1}} CHOI Suk-Woo, pp. 5-6.
#{{note|lay2}} National Unification Board, [[The Identity of the Korean People]], Seoul, 1983, pp. 132-136.
#{{note|parallel1}} Seoul International Publishing House, [[Focus on Korea, Korean History]], Seoul, 1983, pp. 7-8.
#{{note|parallel2}} Seoul International Publishing House, [[Focus on Korea, Korean History]], Seoul, 1983, pp. 7-8.
#{{note|parallel3}} [[The Identity of the Korean People]], pp. 132-136.
#{{note|parallel4}} [[Ilyon]], tr. HA Tae-hung and Grafton K. Minz, [[Samguk Yusa]], Seoul 1972, pp. 32-33.
#{{note|parallel5}} [[Marguerite Johnson]], 'The Culture', in [[Pico Iyer]] (ed.) 'An Ancient Nation on the Eve of a Modern Spectacle: SOUTH KOREA', [[Time Magazine|Time]] CXXXII, 10, [[5 September]] [[1988]], p. 48.
#{{note|parallel6}} Ibid., p. 48.
#{{note|parallel7}} <u>Focus on Korea,</u> pp. 7-8.
#{{note|use1}} CHO Kwang, 'The Meaning of Catholicism in Korean History', <u>Korean Journal</u> XXIV, 8, August 1984, pp. 20-21.
#{{note|protestantism1}} [[Colin Whittaker]], [[Korea Miracle]], Eastbourne, 1988, p. 133.
#{{note|protestantism2}} Andrew C. Nah, <u>A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History,</u> Seoul, 1983, p. 81.
#{{note|identification1}} Whittaker, p. 62.
#{{note|identification2}} Ibid., p. 65.
#{{note|identification3}} Ibid., p. 63.
#{{note|identification4}} CHOI Suk-woo, p. 10.
#{{note|identification5}} <u>[[Encyclopedia Americana]],</u> Vol. 23, Danbury, Conn., 1988, p. 464.
#{{note|identification6}} CHO Kwang, p. 11.
#{{note|identification7}} Whittaker, p. 65.
#{{note|education1}} <u>[[Merit Students Encyclopedia]],</u> Vol. 10, New York and London, 1980, p. 440.
#{{note|education2}} Whittaker, p. 34.
#{{note|education3}} CHO Kwang, pp. 20-21.
#{{note|education4}} Whittaker, p. 40.
#{{note|education5}} KIM Ok-hy, p. 34.
#{{note|social1}} CHO Kwang, pp. 16-18.
#{{note|social2}} Ibid., pp. 18-19.
#{{note|social3}} KIM Han-sik, pp. 11-12.
#{{note|social4}} CHOI Suk-woo, p. 7.
#{{note|social5}} CHO Kwang, pp. 16-18.
#{{note|social6}} Ibid., pp. 18-19.
#{{note|social7}} Ibid., pp. 16-19.
#{{note|minjung1}} Michael Lee, 'Korean Churches Pursue Social and Political Justice', in Brian Heavy (Ed.), <u>Accent</u> III, 3 Auckland, May 1988, pp. 19-20.
#{{note|minjung2}} [[Kessing's Contemporary Archives]], London, [[25 April]] [[1980]], p. 30216.
#{{note|looking1}} J. Earnest Fisher, <u>Pioneers of Modern Korea,</u> Seoul, 1977, pp. 65-74.
See Frank Tedesco's "Questions for Buddhist and Christian Cooperation in South Korea" in ''Buddhist-Christian Studies'' 17 (1997). (about the military officers forcing church attendance)
=== Bibliography ===
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*{{cite journal | last = Choi | first = Suk-Woo | year = 1984 | month = August | title = Korean Catholicism Yesterday and Today | journal = Korea Journal | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = pp. 4–13 | id = ISSN 0023-3900 | url = http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?BACKFLAG=Y&VOLUMENO=24&BOOKNUM=8&PAPERNUM=1&SEASON=Aug.&YEAR=1984}}
*''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]'' (1986). Vol. 23, Danbury, Conn.: Grolier. ISBN 0-7172-0117-1 (set).
*{{cite book | last = Fisher | first = J. Earnest | year = 1977 | title = Pioneers of Modern Korea | publisher = Christian Literature Society of Korea | location = Seoul}}
*''Focus on Korea'' (1986). Vol. 2, "Korean History", Seoul: Seoul International Pub. House.
*{{cite book | last = Ilyon | authorlink = Ilyon | year = 1972 | title = [[Samguk Yusa]]: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea | others = trans. Tae-Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz | publisher = Yonsei University Press | location = Seoul}}
*{{cite news | first = Marguerite | last = Johnson | title = An Ancient Nation on the Eve of a Modern Spectacle | work = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date = [[1988-09-05]]}}
*{{cite book | last = Johnson | first = Patrick | coauthors = and Mandryk, Jason | year = 2001 | title = Operation World: The Definitive Prayer Guide to the Nations, Peoples, and Cities of the World | publisher = Global Mapping International (CD-ROM) | location = Colorado Springs, Colo.}}
*Keesing's (1979). ''Keesing's Contemporary Archives'' '''25''': p. 30216. ISSN 0022-9679.
*{{cite journal | last = Kim | first = Han-Sik | year = 1983 | month = December | title = The Influence of Christianity on Modern Korean Political Thought | journal = Korea Journal | volume = 23 | issue = 12 | pages = pp. 4–17 | id = ISSN 0023-3900 | url = http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?BACKFLAG=Y&VOLUMENO=23&BOOKNUM=12&PAPERNUM=1&SEASON=Aug.&YEAR=1984}}
*{{cite journal | last = Kim | first = Ok-Hy | year = 1984 | month = August | title = Women in the History of Catholicism in Korea | journal = Korea Journal | volume = 24 | issue = 8 | pages = pp. 28–40 | id = ISSN 0023-3900 | url = http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?BACKFLAG=Y&VOLUMENO=24&BOOKNUM=8&PAPERNUM=3&SEASON=Aug.&YEAR=1984}}
*{{cite journal | last = Lee | first = Michael | year = 1981 | month = May | title = Korean Churches Pursue Social and Political Justice | journal = Accent | volume = 3 | issue = 3}}
*''[[Merit Students Encyclopedia]]'' (1980). Vol. 10, New York: Macmillan Educational.
*{{cite book | last = Suh | first = Kuk-sung (et al.) | year = 1983 | title = The Identity of the Korean People: A History of Legitimacy on the Korean Peninsula | others = trans. Chung Chung | publisher = National Unification Board | location = Seoul}}
*{{cite book | last = Whittaker | first = Colin | year = 1988 | title = Korea Miracle | publisher = Kingsway | location = Eastbourne, Sussex | id = ISBN 0-86065-522-9}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/volodyatikhonov/darwinism Pressure of Buddhism from Christianity in Korea]
*[http://www.geocities.com/~iarf/tedesco1.html Questions for Buddhist and Christian Cooperation in Korea]
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html CIA The World Factbook - Korea, South]
{{Asia in topic|Christianity in}}
{{Christian History|collapsed}}
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Christian interfaith and secular relations]]
[[Category:Christianity in Korea| ]]
[[ja:韓国のキリスト教]]
[[vi:Cơ Đốc giáo tại Hàn Quốc]]
[[zh:韩国基督教]]