Chronology of the ancient Near East
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:''See [[short chronology]] for a timeline in absolute dates.''
{{Ancient Near East topics}}
The '''[[chronology]] of the [[Ancient Near East]]''' is a framework of dates for various events, rulers and dynasties of the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd]] and [[2nd millennium BC|2nd]] millennia BC.
The following periods need to be distinguished:
#[[Early Bronze Age]]: A series of rulers and dynasties whose existence is based mostly on the [[Sumerian King List]] besides some that are attested epigraphically (e.g. [[En-me-barage-si]]). No absolute dates within a certainty better than a century can be assigned to this period.
#[[Middle Bronze Age|Middle]] to [[Late Bronze Age]]: Beginning with the [[Akkadian Empire]] around 2300 BC, the chronological evidence becomes internally more consistent. Essentially, for this period, a good picture can be drawn of who succeeded whom, and synchronisms between [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Levant]] and the more robust [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]] can be established. The assignment of absolute dates is a matter of dispute; the conventional '''middle chronology''' fixes the [[sack of Babylon]] at 1591 BC while the '''short chronology''' fixes it at 1531 BC.
#The [[Bronze Age collapse]] - a "Dark Age" begins with the fall of Babylonian Dynasty III (Kassite) around 1200 BC, the invasions of the [[Sea People]]s and the collapse of the [[Hittite Empire]].
#[[Early Iron Age]]: around 900 BC, historical data, written records become more numerous once more, with the rise of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], enabling the certain assignment of absolute dates. Classical sources such as the [[Canon of Ptolemy]], the works of [[Berosus]] and the [[Hebrew Bible]] provide chronological support and synchronisms. An eclipse in 763 BC which anchors the [[Assyrian]] list of imperial officials.
==Variant Bronze Age chronologies==
Due to the sparsity of sources throughout the "Dark Age", the history of the Near Eastern [[Bronze Age]] down to the end of the [[Third Babylonian Dynasty]] is a "floating chronology". In other words, it fits together internally as a "relative chronology" but not as a "absolute chronology".
The major schools of thought on the length of the Dark Age are separated by 56 or 64 years. This is because the key source for their dates is the [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]] and the visibility of Venus has a 56/64{{huh}} year cycle. There have been other attempts to anchor the chronology using records of eclipses and other methods, but they are not yet widely supported. The alternative major chronologies are defined by the date of the 8th year of the reign of [[Ammisaduqa]], king of Babylon. This choice then defines the reign of [[Hammurabi]].
The current scholarly consensus is with the '''short chronology''' (sack of Babylon 1531 BC) used in this article. In older literature, the most commonly encountered is the '''middle chronology''' (sack of Babylon 1595 BC). The middle chronology currently still has strong academic supporters. The alternative "long" and "ultra low"<ref name="ultra">[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0311035] V.G.Gurzadyan, On the Astronomical Records and Babylonian Chronology, Akkadica, v 119-120 (2000), pp. 175-184.)</ref> chronologies are clear minority views. There are also some scholars who discount the validity [[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]] entirely.
The following table gives an overview of the competing proposals, listing some key dates and the deviation relative to the short chronology:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Chronology !! Ammisaduqa Year 8 !! Reign of Hammurabi !! Fall of Babylon I !! ±
|-
| Ultra-Low || 1542 BC || 1696 BC - 1654 BC || 1499 BC || +32 [[annum|a]]
|-
| Short or Low || 1574 BC || 1728 BC - 1686 BC || 1531 BC || ±0 a
|-
| Middle || 1638 BC || 1792 BC - 1750 BC || 1595 BC || -64 a
|-
| Long or High|| 1694 BC || 1848 BC - 1806 BC || 1651 BC || -120 a
|-
|}
The chronologies of Mesopotamia, the Levant and Anatolia depend significantly on the [[chronology of Ancient Egypt]]. To the extent that there are problems in the Egyptian chronology, these issues will be inherited in chronologies based on synchronisms with Ancient Egypt.
==Sources of chronological data==
===Inscriptional===
Thousands of cuneiform tablets have been found in an area running from Anatolia to Egypt. While many are the modern equivalent of grocery receipts, these tablets, along with inscriptions on buildings and public monuments, provide the major source of chronological information for the ancient Middle East.<ref>Cuneiform Texts and the Writing
of History, Marc Van de Mieroop, Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0415195322</ref>
====Underlying issues====
*State of materials
While there are some relatively pristine
objects, such as you might see in the Louvre or the British
Museum, the vast majority of recovered tables and inscriptions are in
much worse condition. They have been broken with only portions found,
intentionally defaced, and damaged by weather or the effects of being
buried underground. Many tablets were not even baked in antiquity and
have to be carefully handled until they are heated properly.
<ref>[http://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlj/2003/cdlj2003_001.html] Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative </ref>
*Provenance
The fact of where an item is recovered is an important piece of
information for archaeologist. Unfortunately, two forces get in the way
of this data. First, in ancient times old materials were often reused
either as building material or fill, sometimes at a great distance from
the original location. Secondly, looting has been a fact of life for
archaeological sites, dating at least back to Roman times. The
provenance of a looted object is difficult or impossible to determine.
*Multiple Versions
Over time, key documents like the [[Sumerian King List]] were
repeatedly copied across the generations. As a result, there are
sometimes multiple versions of a chronological source that differ from
each other. It can be very hard to determine which version is correct.
The Sumerian King List is a good example. <ref>[http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/section2/tr211.htm]Transalation of Sumerian King List</ref>
*Translation
The translation of cuneiform documents is quite difficult, especially
given the damaged nature of much source material. Additionally, our
knowledge of the underlying languages, like Akkadian and Sumerian, have
evolved over time, so a translation done now may be quite different
than one done in 1900 AD. The result of all this is that there can be
honest disagreement what the document really says. Worse yet, many archaeological finds
have not yet been published, much less translated. Those held in private collections may never be.
*Slant
Many of our important source documents, such as the Assyrian King List,
are the products of government and religious establishments. They
often have a built in slant in favor of the king or god in charge. A
king may even take credit for a battle or construction project of an earlier ruler. The Assyrians in particular have a literary tradition of
always putting the best possible face on history. The tablets or
inscriptions in question still have value, though one does have to keep the
slant in mind.
====King Lists====
Keeping historical lists of rulers was traditional in the ancient Near
East.
*[[Sumerian King List]]
Covers rulers of Mesopotamia from a time "before the flood" up to the
fall of the Isin Dynasty. For many early city/states it is the only
source of chronological data. A major problem is that many early rulers
are listed with fantastically long reigns. There has been some speculation
that this stems from an error transcribing from the base 60 arithmetic
of the Sumerians to the decimal based system of the later Akkadians.<ref>A Mathematical Approach to Certain Dynastic Spans in the Sumerian King List, Dwight W. Young, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 123-129</ref>
*[[Babylonian King List]]
This list deals only with the rulers of Babylon. It has been found in
two versions [[Babylonian King List A]] and [[Babylonian King List B]].
The later dynasties in the list reflect the Kassite and Sealand periods of Babylon.
There is also a Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period which covers
the later part of the 1st millennium.<ref>[http://www.livius.org/k/kinglist/babylonian_hellenistic.html]Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period. </ref>
*[[Assyrian King List]]
Found in multiple differing copies, this tablet lists all the kings
of Assyria and their regnal lengths back into the mists of time, with the
portions with reasonable data beginning at around the 14th century BC.<ref>
[http://www.livius.org/k/kinglist/assyrian.html] Assyrian King List at Livius.org.</ref> When combined with the various Assyrian chronicles,
the Assyrian King List anchors the chronology of the 1st millennium. Some
contrarians believe this anchoring is less than solid.<ref> The Chronology of Ancient Assyria Re-assessed, Newgrosh, B, JACF VOLUME 08 - Pages 78 - 106 1999.</ref>
====Chronicles====
Many chronicles have been recovered in the ancient Near East. Most are
partial or fragmentary, but when combined with other sources, they provide
a rich source of chronological data. <ref>[http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/chron00.html] Chronicles at
Livius.org.</ref>
*Synchronistic Chronicle
Found in the library of Assurbanipal in Nineveh, it records the interaction
of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, from the Assyrian point of view. While
useful, the consensus is that this chronicle should be taken with a grain
of salt.<ref>[http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc21/synchronistic1.html] Synchronistic Chronicle at Livius.org </ref>
*Chronicle P
While quite incomplete, this tablet provides the same type of information
as the Assyrian Synchronistic Chronicle, but from the Babylonian point
of view.<ref>[http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/abc22/p.html] Chronicle P at Livius.org. </ref>
*Royal Chronicle of Lagash
The Sumerian King List omits any mention of Lagash, even though it
was clearly a major power during the period covered by the list. The
Royal Chronicle of Lagash appears to be an attempt to remedy that omission,
listing the kings of Lagash in the form of a chronicle. <ref>[http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/cm/lagash.html] Royal Chronicle of Lagash at Livius.org.</ref>. It should be noted that some scholars believe
the chronicle to be either a parody of the Sumerian King List or a complete
fabrication.<ref>Mesopotamian Chronicles By Jean-Jacques Glassner Published 2004 ISBN 1589830903</ref>
====Royal inscriptions====
As today, political figures in the ancient Near East liked to take
credit for public works. Temples, walls, statues, pretty much anything
built by a ruler is likely to have some sort of inscription mentioning
their name. The kings also were sure to record major deeds like battles
won, titles acquired, or gods appeased in some form of public inscription.
These are very useful in tracking the reign of a ruler.
====Year lists====
Unlike current calendars, most ancient calendars were based on how long
the current ruler had been in power. A year might be "the 5th year in
the reign of Hammurabi". As part of this, each royal year was given
a title, like "the year Ur was defeated". Most often this reflected
a deed of the ruler. The compilation of these years are called date lists.
<ref>[http://cdli.ucla.edu/tools/yearnames/yn_index.html] Mesopotamian Year Names</ref>
====Eponym (limmu) lists====
In Assyria, a royal official, or [[Limmu]] was selected
every year of a king's reign. Many copies of these lists have
been found. <ref>[http://www.livius.org/li-ln/limmu/limmu_2.html] Assyrian Eponym List 1</ref> <ref>The Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910-612 B.C., by Alan Millard. State Archives of Assyria Studies 11, Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 1994. xvi + 153 pp., 20 plates</ref>. Naturally, things
are not as clear cut as all that. There are sometimes more or fewer limmu
than the length of a king's reign. And sometimes the different versions
of the Eponym List disagree on a limmu.
====Trade, diplomatic, and disbursement records====
As is often the case in archaeology, it is the everyday records of
a civilization that give the best picture of a civilization. Cuneiform
tablets were constantly moving around the ancient Near East, offering
alliances (sometimes including daughters for marriage), threatening
war, acting as shipping documents for mundane supplies or settling
accounts receivable. Most were tossed away after use the way that we
would toss the receipt from a fast food restaurant. Fortunately for us,
they didn't really have recycling, except perhaps to use the material
as wall filler in new construction.
*[[Amarna Letters]]
The classic example. A number of cuneiform tablets were found at
Amarna Egypt, the city of the pharaoh [[Akenaten]]. They were written mostly
in Akkadian, the diplomatic language of the time. Several named rulers in the region including the kings of Assyria and Babylon.
Assuming that the correct kings have been identified, it locks the
chronology of the ancient Near East to that of Egypt, at least from
the middle of the 2nd Millennium.
===Classical===
Some data sources are available to us from the classical period
*[[Berosus]]
Berosus was a Babylonian astronomer living during the Hellenistic period.
He wrote a history of Babylon which has not survived to modern times.
Luckily, portions of this work were preserved by other classical writers.
*[[Canon of Ptolemy]] or [[Canon of Kings]]
This book provides a list of
kings starting at around 750 BC in Babylon and forward through the
Persian and Roman periods, in an astronomical context. It is used to help
define the chronology of the 1st millennium.
*Hebrew Bible
Not having the benefit of being written into clay and buried, the
records of the Hebrews have an additional layer of time and translation
to work through in being used as a source for chronology. On the
other hand, the Hebrews did live pretty much in a territory directly
in the crosshairs of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt and the Hittites, giving them
a front row seat to actions in the area. Mainly of use in the 1st millennium
and with the Assyrian New Kingdom.
===Astronomical===
*[[Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa]]
A record of the movements of Venus during the reign of a king of
the First Babylonian Dynasty. Using it, various scholars have proposed
dates for the fall of Babylon based on the 56/64 year cycle of Venus.
More recent work has suggested that the fundamental 8 year cycle of
Venus is a better metric, leading to the proposal of a "ultra-low"
chronology.<ref>The Venus Tablet and Refraction, V.G. Gurzadyan, Akkadica, v. 124 (2003), pp. 13-17.</ref>
*Eclipses
A number of lunar and solar eclipses have been suggested for
use in dating the ancient Near East. Many suffer from the vagueness
of the original tablets in showing that an actual eclipse occurred. At
that point, it becomes a question of using computer models to show
when a given eclipse would have been visible at a site, complicated by difficulties in modeling the slowing rotation of the earth, [[Delta T]]. One important event is the Ninevah Eclipse, found in an Assyrian
limmu list i.e. "Bur-Sagale of Guzana, revolt in the city of Ashur. In the
month Simanu an eclipse of the sun took place." This eclipse is considered
to be solidly dated to 15 June 763 BC. Another important event is the
[[Ur III]] Lunar/Solar Eclipse pair in the reign of [[Shulgi]]. Most calculations
for dating using eclipses have assumed that the Venus Tablet of Ammisaduqa
is a legitimate source. <ref> Ancient Astronomical Observations
and Near Eastern Chronology, Wayne A. Mitchell, JACF Vol 3 1990.</ref>
<ref name="ultra"/>
===Dendrochronology===
[[Dendrochronology]] attempts to use the variable growth pattern
of trees, expressed in their rings, to build up a chronological
timeline. At present, there are no continuous chronologies for the Near East.
A floating chronology has been developed using trees in Anatolia for the
Bronze and Iron Ages. Until a continuous sequence is developed, the
usefulness for improving the chronology of the Ancient Near East is
limited. <ref> Anatolian tree rings and the absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean, 2220-718 BC Kuniholm, Peter Ian, Kromer, Bernd, Manning, Sturt W, Newton, Maryanne, et al. Nature. London: Jun 27, 1996. Vol. 381, Iss. 6585; pg. 780-783</ref><ref> Dendrochronological Dating in Anatolia: The Second Millennium B.C."
Peter I. Kuniholm, Maryanne W. Newton, Carol B. Griggs, & Pamela J. Sullivan, Der Anschnitt, Anatolian Metal III, Beiheft 18, 2005, pp. 41-47.</ref> <ref>[http://dendro.cornell.edu/projects/aegean.php] Aegean Dendrochronology Project</ref>
===Radiocarbon dating===
As in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean, radiocarbon dates run
one or two centuries earlier than the dates proposed by archaeologists.
It is not at all clear which groups is right, if either. Mechanisms
have been proposed for explaining why radiocarbon dates in the
region might be skewed. Equally logical arguments have been made
suggesting that the archaeological dates are too late. Time will
tell. <ref>[http://www.grisda.org/origins/56006.pdf] Recent Developments in Near Eastern Chronology and
Radiocarbon Dating, Michael G. Hasel, Institute of Archaeology,
Southern Adventist University, Origins Vol 56 2004, pp 6-31. </ref> The spread of accelerator based carbon dating techniques
may help clear up the issue. Another promising front is the dating
of lime plaster from structures. <ref> New Uses for Old Laboratory
techniques, Jason A. rech, Near Eastern Archaeology, dec 2004;67,4. p 212-219.
</ref>
===Synchronisms===
====Egypt====
At least as far back as the reign of [[Thutmose III]], Egypt took a strong interest in the ancient
Near East. At times they occupied portions of the region, a favor returned in later days
by the Assyrians. Some key synchronisms:
*[[Battle of Kadesh]], involving [[Ramses II]] of Egypt (in his 5th year of reign) and [[Muwatalli II]] of the Hittite empire. Recorded by both Egyptian and Hittite records.<ref>[http://www.hittites.info/history.aspx?text=history%2fMiddle+Late+Empire.htm] Battle of Kadesh - Hittite Perspective</ref>
*Peace treaty between Ramses II of Egypt (in his 21st year of reign) and [[Hattusili III]] of the Hittites. Recorded by both Egyptian and Hittite records. <ref>[http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/ramses-hattusili-treaty.htm] Treaty between Egypt and the Hittite Empire</ref>
*[[Amenhotep III]] (Amenophis III) marries the daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni. There is also a record of messages from the pharoh to Kadashman-Enlil I of Babylon in the Amarna Letter (EA1-5). Other Amarna letters link Amenhotep III to Burnaburiash II of Babylon (EA6) and Tushratta of Mitanni (EA17-29) as well.
*[[Akhenaten]] married the daughter of Tushratta of Mitanni (as did his father Amenhotep III) leaving a number of records on the matter.
*[[Amenhotep IV]] corresponded with Burnaburiash II of Babylon (EA7-11,15), and Ashuruballit 1 of Assyria (EA15-16)
====Indus Valley====
There is much evidence that the [[Harappan]] civilization of the [[Indus Valley]] traded with the region. This is demonstrated by clay seals found at Ur III and in the Persian Gulf. <ref>Gadd, C. J. “Seals of Ancient Indian Style Found at Ur.” Proceedings
of the British Academy 18 (1932):191-210.</ref>In addition, if the land of [[Meluhha]] does indeed refer to the Indus Valley, then there are extensive trade records ranging from the Akkadian Empire until the Babylonian Dynasty I.
====Thera and Eastern Mediterranean====
Goods from Greece made their way into the ancient Near East, directly in Anatolia and via the island of [[Cyprus]] in the rest of the region and Egypt. A Hittite king, Tudhaliya IV even captured Cyprus as part of an attempt to enforce a blockade of the Assyrians.<ref>Urbanism on Late Bronze Age Cyprus: LC II in Retrospect,
Ora Negbi, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Feb 2005, Iss. 337; pp. 1-45</ref>
The [[minoan eruption|eruption of the Thera volcano]] provides a possible time marker for the region. A large eruption, it would have sent a plume of ash directly over Anatolia and filled the sea in the area with floating pumice. This pumice appeared in Egypt, apparently via trade. Current excavations in the Levant may also add to the timeline. Unfortunately, the exact date of the volcanic eruption is subject of strong contest between the radiocarbon experts, who place it at around 1625 BC and archaeologists, who support a date around 1450 BC.<ref>[http://www.arts.cornell.edu/classics/Faculty/SManning_files/testoftime.pdf]WWW Companion site to: MANNING, S. W. (1999) A Test of Time</ref>
==See also==
{{Ancient Near East portal}}
*[[Short chronology timeline]]
*[[Bronze Age collapse]]
*[[Egyptian chronology]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
== References ==
*Chronology at the Crossroads: The Late Bronze Age in Western Asia, Bernard Newgrosh, Troubador Publishing, 2007, ISBN 1906221626
*The Kingdom of the Hittites. (New Edition.), Trevor Bryce, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199281327
*A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC, Marc Van De Mieroop, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 1405149116
*Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City, Gwendolyn Leick, Penguin , 2003, ISBN 0140265740
*H.Gasche, J.A.Armstrong, S.W.Cole and V.G.Gurzadyan, ''Dating the Fall of Babylon'' (1998).
==External links==
*[http://cdli.ucla.edu/ Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative]
*[http://www.livius.org/cg-cm/chronicles/chron00.html Chronicles at Livius.org]
*[http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/ Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature]
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