Cochineal 239348 219113887 2008-06-13T17:09:10Z Dyanega 1357080 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] vandalism by [[Special:Contributions/76.183.61.109|76.183.61.109]] ([[User talk:76.183.61.109|talk]]) {{Taxobox | name = Cochineal | image = Cochineal_drawing.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Female (left) and male (right) Cochineals. | domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]] | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Hemiptera]] | familia = [[Dactylopiidae]] | genus = ''[[Dactylopius]]'' | species = '''''D. coccus''''' | binomial = ''Dactylopius coccus'' | binomial_authority = [[Oronzio Gabriele Costa|Costa]], 1835 | synonyms = ''Coccus cacti'' <small>[[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758</small><br/>''Pseudococcus cacti'' <small>[[Burmeister]], 1839</small> }} '''Cochineal''' is the name of both [[crimson]] or [[carmine]] [[dye]] and the '''cochineal insect''' ('''''Dactylopius coccus'''''), a [[scale insect|scale]] [[insect]] in the suborder [[Sternorrhyncha]], from which the dye is derived. There are other species in the genus ''[[Dactylopius]]'' which can be used to produce cochineal extract, but they are extremely difficult to distinguish from ''D. coccus'', even for expert taxonomists, and the latter scientific name (and the use of the term "cochineal insect") is therefore commonly used when one is actually referring to other biological species; suffice it to say that the reader should be aware that there is more than one cochineal insect. The primary biological distinctions between species are minor differences in host plant preferences, in addition to very different geographic distributions. ''D. coccus'' itself is native to tropical and subtropical [[South America]] and [[Mexico]]. This type of insect, a primarily [[sessile]] [[parasite]], lives on [[cactus|cacti]] from the genus ''[[Opuntia]]'', feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cacti. The insect produces [[carminic acid]] which deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid can be extracted from the insect's body and eggs to make the dye. Cochineal is primarily used as a [[food colouring]] and for [[cosmetics]]. After synthetic pigments and dyes such as [[alizarin]] were invented in the late 19th century, natural-dye production gradually diminished. However, current health concerns over artificial food additives have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again.<ref name="mex">{{cite web | author=Liberato Portillo M. & Ana Lilia Vigueras G. | title=Natural Enemies of Cochineal (''Dactylopius coccus'' Costa): Importance in Mexico | work= | url= http://www.jpacd.org/Jpacd98/portil.pdf| accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> ==History== The cochineal dye was used by the [[Aztec]] and [[Maya civilization|Maya]] peoples of Central and North America. Eleven cities conquered by [[Montezuma]] in the 15th century paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.<ref name="tym">{{cite web | author=Threads In Tyme, LTD | title=Time line of fabrics | work= | url=http://threadsintyme.tripod.com/id63.htm | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> During the colonial period the production of cochineal (''grana fina'') grew rapidly. Produced almost exclusively in [[Oaxaca, Oaxaca|Oaxaca]], Mexico by indigenous producers, cochineal became Mexico's second most valued export after silver.<ref name="behan">{{cite web | author=Jeff Behan | title=The bug that changed history | work= | url=http://www.gcrg.org/bqr/8-2/bug.htm | accessmonthday=June 26 | accessyear=2006 }}<br/></ref> The dyestuff was consumed throughout Europe and was so highly prized that its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges. After the [[Mexican War of Independence]] in 1810&ndash;1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large scale production of cochineal emerged especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands. The demand for cochineal fell sharply with the appearance on the market of [[alizarin|alizarin crimson]] and many other artificial dyes discovered in Europe in the middle of the 19th century, causing a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist.<ref name="behan"/> The delicate manual labor required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry and even less so with the lowering of production costs. The "''tuna'' blood" dye (from the Mexican name for the [[Opuntia]] fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century. The breeding of the cochineal insect has been done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.<ref name="coc">{{cite web | author= Octavio Hernández | title= Cochineal | work= Mexico Desconocido Online | url=http://www.mexicodesconocido.com.mx/english/cultura_y_sociedad/actividades_economicas/detalle.cfm?idsec=17&idsub=81&idpag=1520 | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> In recent years it has become commercially valuable again,<ref name="can">{{cite web | title=Canary Islands cochineal producers homepage | work= | url=http://www.arrakis.es/~rpdeblas/cochinea.htm | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> though most consumers are unaware that the phrases "cochineal extract", "carmine", "crimson lake", "natural red 4", "C.I. 75470", "E120", or even "natural colouring" refer to a dye that is derived from an insect. One reason for its popularity is that, unlike many commercial synthetic red dyes, it is not toxic or carcinogenic. However, the dye can induce an anaphylactic shock reaction in a small number of people.<ref name="FDA">{{cite web | author= Food & Drug Administration | title= Listing of Color Additives Exempt From Certification; Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Labeling: Cochineal Extract and Carmine Declaration | work= Federal Register | url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fr060130.html | accessmonthday=June 26 | accessyear=2006 }}<br/></ref> ==Biology== Cochineal insects are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped scale insects. The females, wingless and about 5&nbsp;mm (0.2&nbsp;in) long, cluster on cactus pads. They penetrate the cactus with their beak-like mouthparts and feed on its juices, remaining immobile. After mating, the fertilized female increases in size and gives birth to tiny [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s. The nymphs secrete a [[wax]]y [[white]] substance over their bodies for protection from water and excessive sun. This substance makes the cochineal insect appear white or grey from the outside, though the body of the insect and its nymphs produces the red pigment, which makes the insides of the insect look dark purple. Adult males can be distinguished from females by their diminutive size and their wings. It is in the nymph stage (also called the ''crawler'' stage) that the cochineal disperses. The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments. Later they move to the edge of the cactus pad where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the cochineals to a new host. These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals.<ref name="urb">{{cite web | author= Carl Olson | title= Cochineal | work= Urban Integrated Pest Management | url= http://ag.arizona.edu/urbanipm/insects/cochineal.html | accessmonthday=July 19 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity; when they mature they cannot feed at all and live only long enough to fertilize the [[Ovum|egg]]s.<ref name="eco">{{cite web | author=W. P. Armstrong | title=Cochineal, Saffron & Woad Photos | work=Economic Plant Photographs | url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ecoph3.htm | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> They are therefore seldom observed.<ref name="urb" /> ===Host cacti=== [[Image:Cochineal infected pads.jpg|right|thumb|180px| Cochineal-infested pads of the cactus ''Opuntia ficus-indica''.]] ''Dactylopius coccus'' is native to tropical and subtropical South America and Mexico, where their host cacti grow natively. They have been introduced to [[Spain]], the [[Canary Islands]], [[Algiers]] and [[Australia]] along with their host cacti; and [[Eritrea]], where their host cacti were already abundant. There are 150 species of ''Opuntia'' cacti, and while it is possible to cultivate cochineal on almost all of them, the best to use is ''[[Opuntia ficus-indica]]''.<ref name="oxa">{{cite web | title=Cultivation of Cochineal in Oaxaca | work=Go-Oaxaca Newsletter | url=http://www.go-oaxaca.com/newsletter/cochineal.html | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> All of the host plants of cochineal colonies were identified as species of ''[[Opuntia]]'' including ''Opuntia amyclaea'', ''O. atropes'', ''O. cantabrigiensis'', ''O. brasilienis'', ''O. ficus-indica'', ''O. fuliginosa'', ''O. jaliscana'', ''O. leucotricha'', ''O. lindheimeri'', ''O. microdasys'', ''O. megacantha'', ''O. pilifera'', ''O. robusta'', ''O. sarca'', ''O. schikendantzii'', ''O. stricta'', ''O. streptacantha'', and ''O. tomentosa''.<ref name="mex" /> Feeding cochineals can damage the cacti, sometimes killing their host. Cochineals other than ''D. coccus'' will feed on many of the same ''Opuntia'' species, and it is likely that the wide range of hosts reported for the former species is because of the difficulty in distinguishing it from these other, less common species. ==Farming== There are two methods of farming cochineal: traditional and controlled. Cochineals are farmed in the traditional method by planting infected cactus pads or [[infection|infecting]] existing cacti with cochineals and [[harvest]]ing the insects by hand. The controlled method uses small [[basket]]s called ''[[Zapotec]] [[nest]]s'' placed on host cacti. The baskets contain clean, fertile females which leave the nests and settle on the cactus to await [[insemination]] by the males. In both cases the cochineals have to be protected from [[predator]]s, cold and rain. The complete cycle lasts 3 months during which the cacti are kept at a constant temperature of 27 °C. Once the cochineals have finished the cycle, the new cochineals are ready to begin the cycle again or to be dried for dye production.<ref name="oxa" /> [[Image:Cochinel Zapotec nests.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Zapotec nests on ''Opuntia ficus-indica'' host cacti]] To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are approximately ninety days old. Harvesting the insects is labor-intensive as they must be individually knocked, brushed or picked from the cacti and placed into bags. The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.<ref name="foo">{{cite web | author=FOODNET | title= Tropical commodities and their markets | work= | url=http://www.foodnet.cgiar.org/market/Tropcomm/part2c2.htm | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> Several natural enemies can reduce the population of the insect on its cacti hosts. Of all the predators, insects seem to be the most important group. Insects and their larvae such as [[Pyralidae|pyralid moth]]s (order [[Lepidoptera]]), which destroy the cactus, and predators such as [[lady bug]]s ([[Coleoptera]]), various [[Diptera]] (such as [[Syrphidae]] and [[Chamaemyiidae]]), [[lacewing]]s ([[Neuroptera]]) and ants ([[Hymenoptera]]) have been identified, as well as numerous [[parasitic wasp]]s. Many birds; human-[[commensalism|commensal]] rodents, especially rats; and reptiles also prey on cochineal insects. In regions dependent on cochineal production, [[pest control]] measures have to be taken seriously. For small-scale cultivation manual methods of control have proved to be the most effective and safe. For large-scale cultivation advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps with [[pheromone]]s.<ref name="mex" /> ===Farming in Australia=== Prickly pear was first taken to [[Australia]] to start a cochineal dye industry in 1788, when Captain Arthur Phillip collected a number of cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first European settlement at Botany Bay (part of which is now [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]). At that time, Spain and Portugal had a world-wide monopoly (via their New World colonial sources) on the cochineal dye industry, and the British desired a source under their own control, as the dye was important to their clothing and garment industries (it was used to colour the British soldiers' [[Red coat (British army)|red coats]], for example).<ref>http://www.northwestweeds.nsw.gov.au/prickly_pear_history.htm Prickly Pear in Australia</ref> ==Dye== {{main|Carmine}} A deep crimson dye is extracted from the female cochineal insects. Cochineal is used to produce [[scarlet]], [[orange (colour)|orange]] and other red tints. The colouring comes from [[carminic acid]]. Cochineal extract's natural carminic-acid content is usually 19&ndash;22%.<ref name="can" /> The insects are killed by immersion in hot water (after which they are dried) or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. Each method produces a different colour which results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal. The insects must be dried to about 30 percent of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying.<ref name="foo" /> It takes about 155,000 insects to make one [[kilogram]] of cochineal. There are two principal forms of cochineal dye: ''cochineal extract'' is a colouring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and ''carmine'' is a more purified colouring made from the cochineal. To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled in [[ammonia]] or a [[sodium carbonate]] solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, and [[alum]] is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the red [[aluminium]] salt. Purity of colour is ensured by the absence of [[iron]]. [[Stannous chloride]], [[citric acid]], [[borax]], or [[gelatin]] may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades of [[purple]], [[Calcium carbonate|lime]] is added to the alum.<ref name="tym" /> [[As of 2005]], [[Peru]] produced 200 tonnes of cochineal dye per year and the [[Canary Islands]] produced 20 tonnes per year.<ref name="foo" /><ref name="can" /> [[Chile]] and Mexico have also recently begun to export cochineal.<ref name="mex" /> [[France]] is believed to be the world's largest importer of cochineal; [[Japan]] and [[Italy]] also import the insect. Much of these imports are processed and reexported to other developed economies.<ref name="foo" /> As of 2005, the market price of cochineal was between 50 and 80 [[United States dollar|USD]] per kilogram,<ref name="oxa" /> while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as 10&ndash;20 USD per kilogram.<ref name="syn">{{cite web | title=Price Quote | work= | url=http://www.vorras.net/chemicals/?read=2707 | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> ===Usage=== [[Image:Cochineal-dyed-wool.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Wool dyed with cochineal]] Traditionally cochineal was used for colouring [[fabrics]]. During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, the use of cochineal increased, as it provided the most intense colour and it set more firmly on [[wool]]en garments than on clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such as [[cotton]], [[agave]] [[fiber]]s and [[yucca]] fibers. Once the European market had discovered the qualities of this product, their demand for it increased dramatically. Carmine became strong competition for other colourants such as [[madder]] root, [[Kermes (dye)|kermes]], [[Polish cochineal]], [[brazilwood]], and [[Tyrian purple]],<ref name="dye">{{cite web | author= L. Meyer | title=Dyeing Red | work=West Kingdom (SCA) Arts and Sciences Tourney, July 2004 | url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060202101930/http://www.halimal.com/WWW/dyes/dyeing_red.php | accessmonthday=July 19 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> as they were used for dyeing the clothes of [[Monarch|kings]], [[Nobility|nobles]] and the [[clergy]]. It was also used for painting, [[handicraft]]s and [[tapestry|tapestries]].<ref name="coc" /> Cochineal-coloured wool and cotton are still important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts. Now it is used as a fabric and [[cosmetics]] dye and as a natural [[food coloring|food colouring]], as well as for [[oil paint]]s, pigments and watercolours. When used as a food additive, the dye must be labelled on packaging labels.<ref name="who">{{cite web | author=Dr J. B. Greig | title=WHO Food Additives Series 46:Cochineal extract, Carmine, and Carminic Acid | work=|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v46je03.htm | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> Sometimes carmine is labelled as [[E number|''E120'']]. An unknown percentage of people have been found to have allergies to carmine, ranging from mild cases of hives to [[atrial fibrillation]] and [[anaphylactic shock]]. Carmine has been found to cause asthma in some people.<ref name="who" /> Cochineal is one of the colours that the Hyperactive Children's Support Group recommends be eliminated from the diet of hyperactive children. Natural carmine dye used in food and cosmetics can render it unacceptable to [[vegetarian]] (or [[vegan]]) consumers, and many [[Muslim]]s and [[Jew]]s consider carmine-containing food forbidden ([[haraam]] and [[treif]]) because the dye is extracted from insects. Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colourants that resist degradation with time. It is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural colourants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colours.<ref name="e120">{{cite web | author= Wild Flavors, Inc. | title= E120 Cochineal | work= The wild world of solutions | url=http://www.wildflavors.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.viewPage&page_id=E0EB7A7B-5004-D739-A5FAE84FEA76CA1C | accessmonthday=July 19 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> The water-soluble form is used in [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic drinks]] with calcium carmine; the insoluble form is used in a wider variety of products. Together with ammonium carmine they can be found in [[meat]], [[sausage]]s, processed [[poultry]] products (meat products cannot be coloured in the United States unless they are labeled as such), [[surimi]], [[marination|marinades]], alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings, [[cookie]]s, [[dessert]]s, icings, pie fillings, [[jam]]s, preserves, [[gelatin]] desserts, [[juice]] beverages, varieties of [[cheddar cheese]] and other [[dairy]] products, [[sauce]]s and sweets. The average human consumes one to two drops of carminic acid each year with food.<ref name="e120" /> Carmine is one of the very few [[pigments]] considered safe enough for use in eye cosmetics.<ref name="nop">{{cite web | author=Bruce MacEvoy | title=Natural Organic Pigments | work= | url=http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/pigmt1c.html | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }}<br/></ref> A significant proportion of the insoluble carmine pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products, [[lipstick]]s, face powders, [[Cosmetics|rouges]], and blushes.<ref name="e120" /> A bright red dye and the [[Staining (biology)|stain]] carmine used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too.<ref name="eco" /> The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to colour [[tablet|pills]] and [[ointment]]s.<ref name="foo" /> ==See also== * [[Polish cochineal]] * [[Kermes vermilio]] * [[Crimson]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Sources for the History of Cochineal== *Jeremy Baskes, ''Indians, Merchants and Markets: A Reinterpretation of the Repartimiento and Spanish-Indian Economic Relations in Colonial Oaxaca, 1750–1821'', Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. *Amy Butler Greenfield, ''A Perfect Red: Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire'', New York: Harper Collins Press, 2005. *Brian Hamnett, ''Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. *David McCreary, ''Rural Guatemala 1760–1940'', Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996. *R.A. Donkin, "Spanish Red: An Ethnogeographical Study of Cochineal and the Opuntia Cactus," Transactions of the American Philosophical Society v. 67, pt. 5. ==External links== {{commons|Cochineal}} *{{cite web | author=Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph. D., 1898 | title=Coccus (U.S.P.) - Cochineal | work=King's American Dispensatory | url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/coccus.html | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | author=Direction of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 1911 | title=Coccus, B.P. | work=The British Pharmaceutical Codex | url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/bpc1911/coccus.html | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | author=Lucius E. Sayre, B.S. Ph. M., 1917 | title=Coccus. - Cochineal | work=A Manual of Organic Materia Medica and Pharmacognosy | url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/sayre/coccus.html | accessmonthday=July 14 | accessyear=2005 }} *{{cite web | author=Jane Zhang, 2006 | title=Is There a Bug in Your Juice? New Food Labels Might Say | work=The Wall street Journal | url=http://online.wsj.com/public/article_print/SB113833159673257881-7aQTK755ykjASE3hGnfjQrjZlSk_20060203.html }} *{{cite web | author=Dr J. B. Greig | title=COCHINEAL EXTRACT, CARMINE, AND CARMINIC ACID | work=WHO FOOD ADDITIVES SERIES 46 | url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v46je03.htm | accessmonthday=June 2 | accessyear=2007 }} {{featured article}} {{Dyeing}} [[Category:Hemiptera]] [[Category:Natural dyes]] [[Category:Food additives]] [[Category:Food science]] [[Category:Food colorings]] [[Category:Insect products]] [[da:Cochenillelus]] [[es:Dactylopius coccus]] [[fi:Kokenillikirva]] [[fr:Dactylopius coccus]] [[hu:Bíbortetű]] [[it:Dactylopius coccus]] [[pt:Cochonilha]] [[ru:Кошениль]] [[sv:Kochenillsköldlus]] [[tr:Cochineal]] [[uk:Червець]] [[vi:Bọ yên chi]]