Coffee
604727
226147598
2008-07-17T01:08:17Z
192.31.246.107
[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 226147400 by [[Special:Contributions/Mhking|Mhking]] ([[User talk:Mhking|talk]])
{{otheruses}}
<!-- Infobox begins -->
{{Infobox Beverage
|name = {{color|#FFFFFF|Coffee}}
|type = Hot Beverage
|manufacturer = Varied
|bgcolor = Sienna
|image = [[Image:A small cup of coffee.JPG|250px|A cup of coffee.]]
|origin = Ethiopia
|introduced = (around) 800 AD
|color = Dark Brown / Light Brown
}}
<!-- Infobox ends -->
'''Coffee''' is a widely-consumed [[stimulant]] [[drink|beverage]] prepared from roasted [[seed]]s, commonly called [[coffee bean]]s, of the [[Coffea|coffee plant]]. Coffee was first consumed in the 9th century, when it was discovered in the highlands of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="EA763">Mekete Belachew, "Coffee," in von Uhlig, Siegbert, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (Weissbaden: Horrowitz, 2003), p.763.</ref> From there, it spread to [[Egypt]] and [[Yemen]], and by the 15th century had reached [[Armenia]], [[Persia]], [[Turkey]], and [[northern Africa]]. From the [[Muslim world]], coffee spread to [[Italy]], then to the rest of [[Europe]] and the Americas.<ref name="Meyers"/> Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.<ref name=tap>{{cite journal | last = Villanueva | first = Cristina M. | coauthors = Cantor, Kenneth P.; King, Will D.; Jaakkola, Jouni J. K.; Cordier, Sylvaine; Lynch, Charles F.; Porru, Stefano; Kogevinas, Manolis | year = 2006 | title = Total and specific fluid consumption as determinants of bladder cancer risk | journal = International Journal of Cancer | volume = 118 | issue = 8 | pages = 2040–2047 | doi = 10.1002/ijc.21587 | accessdate = 2006-08-02}}</ref>
Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small [[evergreen]] bush of the [[genus]] ''Coffea''. The two most commonly grown species are ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' (also known as ''Coffea robusta'') and ''[[Coffea arabica]]''. These are cultivated in [[Latin America]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[Africa]]. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted, undergoing several physical and chemical changes. They are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and [[brewing (cooking)|brewed]] to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented by a variety of methods.
Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout modern history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the [[Ethiopian Church]] banned its consumption until the reign of Emperor [[Menelik II of Ethiopia]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia'' (Addis Ababa: [[Addis Ababa University|Haile Selassie I University]], 1968), p. 198</ref> It was banned in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkey in the 17th century for political reasons, and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.
Coffee is an important export commodity. In 2004, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries,<ref>{{cite web | title = FAO Statistical Yearbook 2004 Vol. 1/1 Table C.10: Most important imports and exports of agricultural products (in value terms)(2004) | publisher = FAO Statistics Division | date= 2006 | url = http://www.fao.org/statistics/yearbook/vol_1_1/pdf/c10.pdf | accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> and in 2005, it was the world's seventh largest legal agricultural export by value.<ref>{{cite web | title = FAOSTAT Core Trade Data (commodities/years) | publisher = FAO Statistics Division | date= 2007 | url = http://faostat.fao.org/site/343/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=343 | accessdate = 2007-10-24}} To retrieve export values: Select the "commodities/years" tab. Under "subject", select "Export value of primary commodity." Under "country," select "World." Under "commodity," hold down the shift key while selecting all commodities under the "single commodity" category. Select the desired year and click "show data." A list of all commodities and their export values will be displayed.</ref>
Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the effects of coffee are positive or negative is still disputed.<ref name="Kummer"/>.
==Etymology==
The [[English language|English]] word ''coffee'' first came to be used in the early- to mid-1600s, but early forms of the word date to the last decade of the 1500s.<ref>{{cite web | title =Coffee | work =Etymology Dictionary Online | publisher=Douglas Harper | url =http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=coffee | accessdate = 2007-10-07 }}</ref> It comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''caffè''. The term was introduced to Europe via the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] ''kahveh'' which is in turn derived from the {{lang-ar|قهوة}}, ''qahweh''.<ref name=Merriam>{{cite web | title =Coffee drinking | work = Merriam-Webster Dictionary | publisher =Merriam-Webster Online | url =http://m-w.com/dictionary/coffee | accessdate =2007-07-27 }}</ref><ref name=Metcalf>Metcalf, 1999, p. 123.</ref> The origin of the Arabic term is uncertain; it is either derived from the name of the [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]] region in western [[Ethiopia]], where coffee was cultivated, or by a truncation of ''qahwat al-būnn'', meaning "wine of the bean" in Arabic. In [[Eritrea]], "būnn" (also meaning "wine of the bean" in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]) is used.<ref>{{cite web | title =Coffee | work =The Oxford English Dictionary Online | publisher =Oxford English Dictionary | url =http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50043279?query_type=word&queryword=coffee&first=1&max_to_show=10&sort_type=alpha&search_id=G0C1-u4sQqW-24389&result_place=1
| accessdate = 2007-07-27 }}</ref> The [[Amharic]] and [[Oromo language|Afan Oromo]] name for coffee is ''bunna''.
==History==
{{main|History of coffee}}
[[Image:Leipzig coffeebaum 815.jpg|thumb|right|Over the door of a [[Leipzig]] [[coffeehouse|coffeeshop]] is a sculptural [[representation (arts)|representation]] of a man in Turkish dress receiving a cup of coffee from a boy.]]
Coffee use can be traced at least to as early as the 9th century, when it appeared in the [[Ethiopian Highlands|highlands of Ethiopia]].<ref name="EA763">Mekete Belachew, "Coffee," in von Uhlig, Siegbert, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'' (Weissbaden: Horrowitz, 2003), p.763.</ref> According to legend, Ethiopian [[Goatherd|shepherd]]s were the first to observe the influence of the [[caffeine]] in coffee beans when the goats appeared to "dance" and to have an increased level of energy after consuming wild coffee berries.<ref name="James"/> The legend names the shepherd "Kaldi." From Ethiopia, coffee spread to [[Egypt]] and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pdf/shrubs/Coffea%20arabica.pdf#search=%22%22Coffea%20Arabica%22%20native%22 |author= John K. Francis |title=Coffea arabica L. RUBIACEAE|publisher= Factsheet of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service|accessdate=2007-07-27}}</ref> It was in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed similarly as they are today. By the 15th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, [[Persia]], [[Turkey]], and [[North Africa|northern Africa]].
In 1583, [[Leonhard Rauwolf]], a German physician, gave this description of coffee after returning from a ten year trip to the [[Near East]]:<ref>{{cite book | author=Léonard Rauwolf | title=Reise in die Morgenländer |language= German}}</ref>
{{cquote|A beverage as black as ink, useful against numerous [[illness]]es, particularly those of the stomach. Its consumers take it in the morning, quite frankly, in a porcelain cup that is passed around and from which each one drinks a cupful. It is composed of water and the fruit from a bush called bunnu.}}
From the [[Muslim]] world, coffee spread to Italy. The thriving trade between [[Venice]] and North [[Africa]], [[Egypt]], and the [[Middle East]] brought many goods, including coffee, to the Venetian port. From Venice, it was introduced to the rest of Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after it was deemed a Christian beverage by [[Pope Clement VIII]] in 1600, despite appeals to ban the "Muslim drink". The first European coffee house opened in Italy in 1645.<ref name="Meyers">{{cite web
| last =Meyers
| first =Hannah
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title ="Suave Molecules of Mocha" -- Coffee, Chemistry, and Civilization
| work =
| publisher =
| date= 2005-03-07
| url =http://www.newpartisan.com/home/suave-molecules-of-mocha-coffee-chemistry-and-civilization.html
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate =2007-02-03}}</ref> The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] were the first to import coffee on a large scale, and they were among the first to defy the Arab prohibition on the exportation of plants or unroasted seeds when Pieter van den Broeck smuggled seedlings from [[Aden]] into Europe in 1616.<ref>''All About Coffee'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5tXt7aoLNoC&pg=PA43&lpg=PA43&dq=1616+dutch+coffee+aden&source=web&ots=Lm8gmDzn2B&sig=xcLB0g6HGCw8aSSjk_4Cj43IXSE]</ref> The Dutch later grew the crop in [[Java]] and [[Ceylon]].<ref name="plant" /> Through the efforts of the [[Honourable East India Company|British East India Company]], coffee became popular in England as well. It was introduced in [[France]] in 1657, and in [[Austria]] and [[Poland]] after the 1683 [[Battle of Vienna]], when coffee was captured from supplies of the defeated [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]].<ref name="Pendergrast">{{cite book
| last =Pendergrast
| first =Mark
| title =Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World
| publisher =Basic Books
| date= 1999
| isbn =0-465-05467-6}}</ref>
When coffee reached [[North America]] during the colonial period, it was initially not as successful as it had been in Europe. During the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]], however, the demand for coffee increased so much that dealers had to hoard their scarce supplies and raise prices dramatically; this was partly due to the reduced availability of tea from [[Great Britain|British]] merchants.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.answers.com/topic/coffee?cat=health |author= Columbia Encyclopedia |title=Coffee|publisher=Columbia University Press|accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref> After the [[War of 1812]], during which Britain temporarily cut off access to [[tea]] imports, the Americans' taste for coffee grew, and high demand during the [[American Civil War]] together with advances in brewing technology secured the position of coffee as an everyday commodity in the United States.<ref>{{citeweb | publisher=All Business | title=Roasted Coffee (SIC 2095)|url=http://www.allbusiness.com/food-kindred-products/miscellaneous-food-preparations/3777798-9.html}}</ref>
Noted as one of the world’s largest, most valuable, legally traded commodities after oil, coffee has become a vital [[cash crop]] for many Third World countries. Over one hundred million people in developing countries have become dependent on coffee as the primary source of income (Ponte 1). Coffee has become the primary export and backbone for African countries like Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Ethiopia<ref name="Ethiopiacoffetrade">{{cite web
| last = Cousin
| first = Tracey L.
| title = Ethiopia Coffee and Trade
| publisher = [[American University]]
| date = June 1997
| url = http://www.american.edu/TED/ethcoff.htm
| accessdate = 2008-03-18}}</ref> as well as other Central American countries (1)
==Biology==
{{main|Coffea}}
[[Image:Koeh-189.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration of ''Coffea arabica'' plant and seeds]]
The ''Coffea'' plant is native to subtropical [[Africa]] and southern [[Asia]].<ref name="ICO"/>
It belongs to a [[genus]] of 10 species of [[flowering plant]]s of the family ''[[Rubiaceae]]''. It is an [[evergreen]] shrub or small tree that may grow 5 meters (16 ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15 centimeters (3.9–5.9 in) long and 6.0 centimeters (2.4 in) wide. It produces clusters of fragrant, white flowers that bloom simultaneously. The fruit berry is oval, about 1.5 centimeters (0.6 in) long,<ref name="Purdue"/> and green when immature, but ripens to yellow, then crimson, becoming black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but from 5 to 10 percent of the berries<ref>{{cite web | url=http://aco.ca/peaberry_coffee | title=Feature Article: Peaberry Coffee | accessdate=2006-11-10 }}</ref> have only one; these are called [[peaberry|peaberries]].<ref>S. Hamon, M. Noirot, and F. Anthony,
''[http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/b_fdi_35-36/41268.pdf Developing a coffee core collection using the principal components score strategy with quantitative data]'' ([[PDF]]), Core Collections of Plant Genetic Resources, 1995.</ref> Berries ripen in seven to nine months.
==Cultivation==
{{main|Coffee varieties}}
Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20 seeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation.<ref name="Purdue">{{cite web
| title =Coffea arabica L.
| author=James A. Duke
| publisher =Purdue University
| url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coffea_arabica.html#Ecology
| accessdate = 2007-07-20 }}</ref>
[[Image:Carte Coffea robusta arabic.png|thumb|350px|left|Map showing areas of coffee cultivation<br />
r:''Coffea canephora''<br />
m:''Coffea canephora'' and ''Coffea arabica''.<br />
a:''Coffea arabica''.]]
The two main cultivated species of the coffee plant are ''[[Coffea canephora]]'' and ''[[Coffea arabica]]''. Arabica coffee (from ''C. arabica'') is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from ''C. canephora''); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor than arabica. For this reason, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is ''C. arabica''.<ref name="ICO">{{cite web
| title =Botanical Aspects
| publisher =International Coffee Organization
| url =http://www.ico.org/botanical.asp
| accessdate = 2007-07-19 }}</ref> However, ''C. canephora'' is less susceptible to disease than ''C. arabica'' and can be cultivated in [[Natural environment|environments]] where ''C. arabica'' will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50 percent more caffeine than arabica.<ref name="EA763" /> For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some [[espresso]] blends to provide a better foam head and to lower the ingredient cost.<ref name="Reynolds">{{cite web
| title =Robusta's Rehab
| author=Reynolds, Richard
| publisher = Coffee Geek
| url =http://www.coffeegeek.com/opinions/cafestage/02-01-2006
| accessdate = 2007-07-31 }}</ref> Other cultivated species include ''Coffea liberica'' and ''Coffea esliaca'', believed to be indigenous to [[Liberia]] and southern [[Sudan]], respectively.<ref name="EA763" />
Most arabica coffee beans originate from either [[Latin America]], [[eastern Africa]], Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and [[central Africa]], throughout [[southeast Asia]], and to some extent in Brazil.<ref name="ICO"/> Beans from different countries or regions usually have distinctive characteristics such as flavor, aroma, [[mouthfeel|body]], and acidity.<ref>''Coffee: A Guide to Buying Brewing and Enjoying, 5th Edition'', by Kenneth Davids</ref> These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffee's growing region, but also on genetic subspecies ([[Variety (biology)|varietals]]) and processing.<ref name="castle">{{cite book
| last =Castle
| first =Timothy
| title =The Perfect Cup: A Coffee Lover's Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Tasting
| publisher =Da Capo Press
| date= 1991
| pages =158
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=BOvMw4fnVZYC&dq=the+perfect+cup
| isbn = 0201570483}}</ref> Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as [[Colombian coffee|Colombian]], [[Java coffee|Java]], or [[Kona coffee|Kona]].
===Production===
[[Brazil]] is world leader in production of green coffee followed by [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Colombia]] and [[Mexico]].
{| border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" width="100%" class="wikitable" align=left style="clear:left"
! colspan=5|Top Ten Green Coffee Producers — 2005
|-
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="30%" | Country
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Production (Int $1000)
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Footnote
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="25%" | Production (MT)
! bgcolor="#DDDDFF" width="10%" | Footnote
|-
| {{BRA}} || 1,781,684 || C || 2,179,270 ||
|-
| {{VNM}} || 809,384 || C || 990,000 || *
|-
| {{IDN}} || 622,986 || C || 762,006 ||
|-
| {{COL}} || 558,050 || C || 682,580 ||
|-
| {{MEX}} || 254,148 || C || 310,861 || F
|-
| {{IND}} || 224,829 || C || 275,000 ||
|-
| {{ETH}} || 212,566 || C || 260,000 || F
|-
| {{GUA}} || 177,084 || C || 216,600 || F
|-
| {{HON}} || 155,860 || C || 190,640 ||
|-
| {{UGA}} || 152,066 || C || 186,000 || F
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em"|No symbol = official figure,F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial figure, C = Calculated figure;<br>
Production in Int $1000 have been calculated based on 1999-2001 international prices<br>
Source: [http://www.fao.org/es/ess/top/commodity.html?lang=en&item=656&year=2005 Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision]
|}
{{-}}
===Ecological effects===
{{main|Coffee and the environment}}
[[Image:Coffee Flowers Show.jpg|thumb|right|A flowering ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' tree in a Brazilian plantation]]
Originally, coffee farming was done in the [[shade]] of trees, which provided habitat for many animals and insects.<ref name=Janzen> {{cite book | last= Janzen | first = Daniel H. (Editor)| year = 1983 | title = Natural History of Costa Rica | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 0226393348}}</ref> This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method. Many farmers (but not all) have decided to modernize their production methods and switch to a method where farmers would now use sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides.<ref>{{cite web
| last =Salvesen
| first =David
| title =The Grind Over Sun Coffee
| publisher =Smithsonian National Zoological Park
| url =http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/4/suncoffee.cfm
| accessdate = 2007-09-24 }}</ref> Traditional coffee production, in the other hand, caused berries to ripen more slowly and it produced lower yields compared to the modernized method but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and serves as a habitat for many species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution, [[habitat destruction]], and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices.<ref name=Janzen/> The [[American Birding Association]] has led a campaign for "shade-grown" and [[organic coffee]]s, which it says are sustainably harvested.<ref>[http://www.thanksgivingcoffee.com/justcup/songbird/whatisit.lasso Song Bird Coffee]. Thanksgiving Coffee Company. </ref> However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value.<ref>{{cite paper | author = Rickert, Eve | title = Environmental effects of the coffee crisis: a case study of land use and avian communities in Agua Buena, Costa Rica | publisher = M.Sc. Thesis, The Evergreen State College | date= 2005-12-15 | url = http://www.archive.org/details/Rickert_EVE_MES_Thesis_2005}}</ref>
===Economics===
{{main|Economics of coffee}}
{{cherrypicked|date=July 2008}}
[[Brazil]] remains the largest coffee exporting nation, but in recent years [[Vietnam]] has become a major producer of robusta beans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ineedcoffee.com/02/04/vietnam/ |title=Vietnam: Silent Global Coffee Power |author=Alex Scofield |accessdate=2007-08-01 }}</ref> [[Colombia]] is the third exporter and the largest producer of washed arabica coffee. Robusta coffees, traded in London at much lower prices than New York's arabica, are preferred by large industrial clients, such as multinational roasters and instant coffee producers, because of the lower cost. Four single roaster companies buy more than 50 percent of all of the annual production: [[Kraft Foods|Kraft]], [[Nestlé]], [[Procter & Gamble]], and [[Sara Lee]].<ref>{{cite web
| last =Stein
| first =Nicholas
| title =Crisis in a Coffee Cup
| publisher =CNNMoney.com
| date= 9, 2002
| url =http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2002/12/09/333463/
| accessdate =2007-07-23 }}</ref> The preference of the "Big Four" coffee companies for cheap robusta is believed by many to have been a major contributing factor to the crash in coffee prices,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.coffeegeek.com/opinions/markprince/11-27-2002 | title=CoffeeGeek - So You Say There's a Coffee Crisis | accessdate=2006-08-26}}</ref> and the demand for high-quality arabica beans is only slowly recovering.
Many experts believe the giant influx of cheap green coffee after the collapse of the International Coffee Agreement of 1975–1989 led to the prolonged price crisis from 1989 to 2004.<ref>{{cite paper | author = Rickert, Eve | title = Environmental effects of the coffee crisis: a case study of land use and avian communities in Agua Buena, Costa Rica | publisher = M.Sc. Thesis, The Evergreen State College | date= 2005-12-15 | url = http://www.archive.org/details/Rickert_EVE_MES_Thesis_2005}}</ref> In 1997 the price of coffee in New York broke [[United States dollar|US$]]3.00/[[pound (mass)|lb]], but by late 2001 it had fallen to US$0.43/lb.<ref>''[http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err38/err38h.pdf Cost Pass-Through in the U.S. Coffee Industry / ERR-38]'' ([[PDF]]), Economic Research Service, [[USDA]].</ref> In 2007, wholesale coffee was about US$1/lb (e.g. 69 cents in London in March to 134 cents in New York in October), with robusta being about 70% of the price of arabica. Retail prices varied from an average of $3 in Poland to $3.50 in the US to $17 in the UK.<ref>www.ico.org/documents/cmr1107e.pdf</ref>
The concept of [[fair trade]] labeling, which guarantees coffee growers a negotiated pre-harvest price, began with the [[Stichting Max Havelaar|Max Havelaar Foundation]]'s labelling program in the Netherlands. In 2004, 24,222 metric tons out of 7,050,000 produced worldwide were fair trade; in 2005, 33,991 metric tons out of 6,685,000 were fair trade, an increase from 0.34 percent to 0.51 percent.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ico.org/prices/po.htm| title=Total Production of Exporting Countries| Publisher=International Coffee Organization| accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.fairtrade.net/coffee.html| title=FLO International: Coffee| Publisher=Fair Trade.net| accessdate=2007-10-16}}</ref> A number of studies have shown that fair trade coffee has a positive impact on the communities that grow it.
A study in 2002 found that fair trade strengthened producer organizations, improved returns to small producers, and positively affected their [[quality of life]].<ref>Ronchi, L. (2002). [http://www.fairtrade.net/uploads/media/ronchi_ft_impact_cococafe_costa_rica.pdf The Impact of Fair Trade on Producers and their Organizations: A Case Study with Coocafe in Costa Rica]. University of Sussex. p25–26.</ref> A 2003 study concluded that fair trade has "greatly improved the well-being of small-scale coffee farmers and their families"<ref>Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). [http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/Sociology/FairTradeResearchGroup/doc/fairtrade.pdf One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America]. Colorado State University, p28</ref> by providing access to credit and external development funding<ref>Taylor, Pete Leigh (2002). [http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/Sociology/FairTradeResearchGroup/doc/pete.pdf Poverty Alleviation Through Participation in Fair Trade Coffee Networks], Colorado State University, p18.</ref> and greater access to training, giving them the ability to improve the quality of their coffee.<ref>Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). [http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/Sociology/FairTradeResearchGroup/doc/fairtrade.pdf One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America]. Colorado State University, p8</ref> The families of fair trade producers were also more stable than those who were not involved in fair trade, and their children had better access to education.<ref>Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). [http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/Sociology/FairTradeResearchGroup/doc/fairtrade.pdf One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America]. Colorado State University, p10–11</ref> A 2005 study of Bolivian coffee producers concluded that [[Fairtrade labelling|Fairtrade certification]] has had a positive impact on local coffee prices, economically benefiting all coffee producers, Fairtrade certified or not.<ref>Eberhart, N. (2005). [http://www.avsf.org/library/cms_download.php?cat=article_document&doc_id=926 Synthèse de l'étude d'impact du commerce équitable sur les organisations et familles paysannes et leurs territoires dans la filière café des Yungas de Bolivie]. Agronomes et Vétérinaires sans frontières, p29.</ref>
The production and consumption of "Fair Trade Coffee" has grown in recent years as some local and national coffee chains have started to offer fair trade alternatives.<ref>Balch-Gonzalez, M, Kmareka.com (2003). Good Coffee, Better World, The Ethics and Economics of Fair Trade Coffee [http://kmareka.com/coffee.htm]</ref>
==Processing==
===Roasting===
{{main|Coffee processing|Coffee roasting}}
[[Image:Espresso-roasted coffee beans.jpg|upright|thumb|Roasted coffee beans]]
Coffee berries and their seeds undergo several processes before they become the familiar roasted coffee. First, coffee berries are picked, generally by hand. Then, they are sorted by ripeness and color and the [[Fruit#Fruit development|flesh]] of the berry is removed, usually by machine, and the seeds—usually called beans—are fermented to remove the slimy layer of [[mucilage]] still present on the bean. When the [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] is finished, the beans are washed with large quantities of fresh water to remove the fermentation residue, which process generates massive amounts of highly polluted [[coffee wastewater]]. Finally the seeds are dried, sorted, and labeled as green coffee beans.<ref>Kummer, Corby. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0618302409/ The Joy of Coffee: The Essential Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying]'', Houghton Mifflin, 38. August 19, 2003. ISBN 978-0618302406.</ref>
The next step in the process is the roasting of the green coffee. Coffee is usually sold in a roasted state, and all coffee is roasted before it is consumed. It can be sold [[Coffee roasting|roasted]] by the supplier, or it can be [[Home roasting coffee|home roasted]].<ref>Kummer, Corby. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0618302409/ The Joy of Coffee: The Essential Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying]'', Houghton Mifflin, 37. August 19, 2003. ISBN 978-0618302406.</ref> The roasting [[process]] influences the taste of the beverage by changing the coffee bean both physically and chemically. The bean decreases in weight as moisture is lost and increases in volume, causing it to become less dense. The density of the bean also influences the strength of the coffee and requirements for packaging. The actual roasting begins when the temperature inside the bean reaches 200 °[[Celsius|C]] (392 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]), though different varieties of beans differ in moisture and density and therefore roast at different rates.<ref name="trent"/> During roasting, [[caramelization]] occurs as intense heat breaks down [[starch]]es in the bean, changing them to [[simple sugar]]s that begin to brown, changing the color of the bean.<ref>Kummer, Corby. ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0618302409/ The Joy of Coffee: The Essential Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying]'', Houghton Mifflin, 261. August 19, 2003. ISBN 978-0618302406.</ref> Sucrose is rapidly lost during the roasting process and may disappear entirely in darker roasts. During roasting, aromatic oils, acids, and caffeine weaken, changing the flavor; at 205 °C (400 °F), other oils start to develop.<ref name="trent"/> One of these oils is ''caffeol'', created at about 200 °C (392 °F), which is largely responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.<ref name="plant">Dobelis, Inge N., Ed.: Magic and Medicine of Plants. Pleasantville: The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., 1986. Pages 370–371.</ref>
Depending on the color of the roasted beans as perceived by the human eye, they will be labeled as light, medium-light, medium, medium-dark, dark, or very dark. A more accurate method of discerning the degree of roast involves measuring the reflected light from roasted beans illuminated with a light source in the near [[infrared]] spectrum. This elaborate light meter uses a process known as [[Spectroscopy]] to return a number that consistently indicates the roasted coffee’s relative degree of roast or flavor development. Such devices are routinely used for quality assurance by coffee roasting businesses.
Darker roasts are generally smoother, because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have more caffeine, resulting in a slight bitterness, and a stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times.<ref name="Mauro">{{cite web
| last =Cipolla
| first =Mauro
| title =Educational Primer: Degrees of Roast
| publisher =Bellissimo Info Group
| url =http://www.virtualcoffee.com/may/educate.html
| accessdate = 2007-07-19}}</ref> A small amount of chaff is produced during roasting from the skin left on the bean after processing.<ref name= "Bay">{{cite web | last = | first = | title =Coffee Roasting Operations | date= 1998-05-15 | publisher =Bay Area Air Quality Management District | url =http://www.baaqmd.gov/pmt/handbook/s11c03pd.htm | accessdate = 2007-07-27 }}</ref> Chaff is usually removed from the beans by air movement, though a small amount is added to dark roast coffees to soak up oils on the beans.<ref name="trent">{{cite web
| last =Ball
| first =Trent
| coauthors =Sara Guenther; Ken Labrousse; Nikki Wilson
| title =Coffee Roasting
| publisher =Washington State University
| url =http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~gmhyde/433_web_pages/coffee/student-pages/6roasting/roasting.htm
| accessdate = 2007-07-18 }}</ref> [[Decaffeination]] may also be part of the processing that coffee seeds undergo. Seeds are decaffeinated when they are still green. Many methods can remove caffeine from coffee, but all involve either soaking beans in hot water or steaming them, then using a [[solvent]] to dissolve caffeine-containing oils.<ref name="plant" /> Decaffeination is often done by processing companies, and the extracted caffeine is usually sold to the pharmaceutical industry.<ref name="plant" />
===Storage===
Once roasted, coffee beans must be stored properly to preserve the fresh taste of the bean. Ideal conditions are air-tight and cool. Air, moisture, heat and light are the environmental factors<ref name="foodnetwork-truebrew">{{cite web |url= http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_10020,00.html |title= True Brew |author= [[Alton Brown]] |publisher= [[Food Network]] |accessdate= 2008-02-18 }}</ref> in order of importance to preserving flavor in coffee beans.
Folded-over bags, a common way consumers often purchase coffee, is generally not ideal for long-term storage because it allows air to enter. A better package contains a one-way valve, which prevents air from entering.<ref name="foodnetwork-truebrew"/>
===Preparation===
{{main|Coffee preparation}}
[[Image:linea doubleespresso.jpg|thumb|right|Espresso brewing, with dark reddish-brown ''crema'']]
Coffee beans must be ground and [[brewing (cooking)|brewed]] in order to create a beverage. Grinding the roasted coffee beans is done at a roastery, in a grocery store, or in the home. They are most commonly ground at a roastery then packaged and sold to the consumer, though "whole bean" coffee can be ground at home. Coffee beans may be ground in several ways. A [[burr mill]] uses revolving elements to shear the bean, an electric grinder smashes the beans with blunt blades moving at high speed, and a mortar and pestle crushes the beans.
The type of grind is often named after the brewing method for which it is generally used. [[Turkish coffee|Turkish grind]] is the finest grind, while [[coffee percolator]] or [[French press]] are the coarsest grind. The most common grinds are between the extremes; a medium grind is used in most common home coffee brewing machines.<ref name="faq"/>
Coffee may be brewed by several methods: boiled, steeped, or pressured. Brewing coffee by boiling was the earliest method, and [[Turkish coffee]] is an example of this method.<ref name= "Harrison"/> It is prepared by powdering the beans with a [[mortar and pestle]], then adding the powder to water and bringing it to a boil in a pot called a [[cezve]] or, in Greek, a briki. This produces a strong coffee with a layer of foam on the surface.<ref name= "Harrison">{{cite book
| last =Ukers
| first =William Harrison
| title =All about Coffee
| publisher =Gale Research; 2d ed edition
| date= 1993-01-01
| pages =725
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5tXt7aoLNoC&pg=PA725&dq=
| isbn = 978-0810340923}}</ref>
Machines such as [[Coffee percolator|percolator]]s or [[Coffeemaker|automatic coffeemaker]]s brew coffee by gravity. In an automatic coffeemaker, hot water drips onto coffee grounds held in a [[coffee filter]] made of paper or perforated metal, allowing the water to seep through the ground coffee while absorbing its oils and essences. Gravity causes the liquid to pass into a carafe or pot while the used [[Coffee preparation|coffee grounds]] are retained in the filter.<ref name= "Levy"/> In a percolator, boiling water is forced into a chamber above a filter by pressure created by boiling. The water then passes downwards through the grounds due to gravity, repeating the process until shut off by an internal timer.<ref name= "Levy">{{cite book
| last =Levy
| first =Joel
| title =Really Useful: The Origins of Everyday Things
| publisher =Firefly Books
| date= November 2002
| pages =1948
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=fyBb_Xh5hqIC&pg=PA1948&dq=Coffee+%2B+percolator+%2B+filter&sig=ItgZl7dugXO0nOCRit70b4-06RQ
| isbn = 978-1552976227}}</ref>
Coffee may also be brewed by steeping in a device such as a [[French press]] (also known as a ''cafetière''). Ground coffee and hot water are combined in a coffee press and left to brew for a few minutes. A plunger is then depressed to separate the coffee grounds, which remain at the bottom of the container. Because the coffee grounds are in direct contact with the water, all the coffee oils remain in the beverage, making it stronger and leaving more sediment than in coffee made by an automatic coffee machine.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Davids
| first =Kenneth
| title =Coffee: A Guide to Buying, Brewing, and Enjoying
| publisher =101 Productions
| date= 1991
| pages =128
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=IqJsIcYOPcQC&pg=PA128&dq=Coffee+%2B+french+press&sig=HA4Swu6PH_9_geJWAN8_jK8iHLQ#PPA128,M1
| isbn = 978-1564265005 }}</ref>
The [[espresso]] method forces hot, but not boiling, pressurized water through ground coffee. As a result of brewing under high pressure (ideally between 9-10 atm) the espresso beverage is more concentrated (as much as 10 to 15 times the amount of coffee to water as gravity brewing methods can produce) and has a more complex physical and chemical constitution. A well prepared espresso has a reddish-brown foam called ''crema'' that floats on the surface.<ref name="faq">{{cite web
| last =Rothstein
| first =Scott
| title =Brewing Techniques
| work =
| publisher =
| url =http://www.thecoffeefaq.com/3brewingtechniques.html
| accessdate =2007-07-19}}</ref> The drink "[[Americano (coffee)|Americano]]" is popularly thought to have been named after American soldiers in [[WW II]] who found the European way of drinking espresso too strong. Baristas would cut the espresso with hot water for them.
[[Image:Latte art.jpg|thumb|Presentation is an integral part of coffeehouse service, as illustrated by the fancy design layered into this [[latte]]]]{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
===Presentation===
[[Image:Brown cup of coffee.jpg|thumb|French "petit noir"]]
Once brewed, coffee may be presented in a variety of ways. Drip brewed, percolated, or French-pressed/cafetière coffee may be served with no additives (colloquially known as black) or with either sugar, milk or cream, or both. When served cold, it is called [[iced coffee]].
Espresso-based coffee has a wide variety of possible presentations. In its most basic form, it is served alone as a "shot" or in the more watered down style [[Americano (coffee)|café américano]]—a shot or two of espresso with hot water.<ref name = "Castle"/> The Americano should be served with the espresso shots on top of the hot water to preserve the crema. Milk can be added in various forms to espresso: steamed milk makes a [[Latte|cafè latte]],<ref>{{cite news
| last =Fried
| first =Eunice
| title =The lowdown on caffe latte
| publisher =Black Enterprise
| date= November 1993
| url =http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1365/is_n4_v24/ai_14651237
| accessdate = 2007-09-26 }}</ref> equal parts espresso and milk froth make a [[cappuccino]],<ref name = "Castle">{{cite book
| last =Castle
| first =Timothy
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Joan Nielsen
| title =The Great Coffee Book
| publisher =Ten Speed Press
| date= 1999
| pages =94
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=x8z9jXVtRCYC&pg=PA94&dq=half+espresso+and+half+steamed+milk+%2B+cappuccino&sig=nM_KmsqR6trWCY5S6SfpOFjgjQU
| isbn =978-1580081221 }}</ref> and a dollop of hot, foamed [[milk]] on top creates a [[caffè macchiato]].<ref>{{cite book
| last =Miller
| first =Emily Wise
| title =The Food Lover's Guide to Florence: With Culinary Excursions in Tuscany
| publisher =Ten Speed Press
| date= May 2003
| pages =12
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=k6GdiP0mY_UC&pg=PA12&dq=caff%C3%A8+macchiato&sig=AbNicQ3d9uIG-uvPaw-AOqcLWXA
| isbn =978-1580084352 }}</ref>
A number of products are sold for the convenience of consumers who do not want to prepare their own coffee. [[Instant coffee]] is dried into soluble powder or [[Freeze drying|freeze dried]] into granules that can be quickly dissolved in hot water.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Hobhouse
| first =Henry
| title =Seeds of Wealth: Five Plants That Made Men Rich
| publisher =Shoemaker & Hoard
| date= 2005-12-13
| pages =294
| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=s67iECV25gcC&pg=PA294&dq=Coffee+%2B+Instant+coffee+%3D+freeze-dried&sig=FaeTyeZL0PzQ0vmLEZlfDiive3M
| isbn = 978-1593760892}}</ref> [[Japanese canned coffee|Canned coffee]] has been popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]. [[Vending machine]]s typically sell varieties of flavored canned coffee, much like brewed or percolated coffee, available both hot and cold. Japanese convenience stores and groceries also have a wide availability of bottled coffee drinks, which are typically lightly sweetened and pre-blended with milk. Bottled coffee drinks are also consumed in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web
| last =Associated Press
| title =Report: Coke, Pepsi faceoff brewing
| publisher =CNN Money
| date= 2005-12-06
| url =http://money.cnn.com/2005/12/06/news/fortune500/coke_cinnabon/index.htm
| accessdate = 2007-09-24 }}</ref> Liquid coffee concentrates are sometimes used in large institutional situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. It is described as having a flavor about as good as low-grade robusta coffee and costs about 10 cents a cup to produce. The machines used can process up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is preheated.<ref>Regarding liquid coffee concentrate: [[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]], March 21, 2005, page C4, ''Commodities Report''</ref>
==Social aspects==
{{main|Social aspects of coffee}}
:''See also: [[Coffeehouse]] for a social history of coffee, and [[caffè]] for specifically Italian traditions.''
[[Image:CoffeePalestineStereo.jpg|thumb|right|A coffeehouse in [[Palestine]] (1900)]]
Coffee was initially used for spiritual reasons. At least 1,000 years ago, traders brought coffee across the [[Red Sea]] into Arabia (modern day Yemen), where Muslim monks began cultivating the shrub in their gardens. At first, the Arabians made wine from the pulp of the fermented coffee berries. This beverage was known as ''qishr'' (''kisher'' in modern usage) and was used during religious ceremonies.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
Coffee became the substitute beverage in place of wine in spiritual practices where wine was forbidden.<ref name="James">{{cite web |title=History of Coffee |url=http://www.jamesoncoffee.com/History.php || publisher=Jameson Coffee}}</ref> Coffee drinking was briefly prohibited to Muslims as ''[[haraam]]'' in the early years of the 16th century, but this was quickly overturned. Use in religious rites among the [[Sufism|Sufi]] branch of Islam led to coffee's being put on trial in Mecca: it was accused of being a heretic substance, and its production and consumption were briefly repressed. It was later prohibited in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]] under an edict by the [[Murad IV|Sultan Murad IV]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.accidentalhedonist.com/index.php/2006/03/24/food_stories_the_sultan_s_coffee_prohibi | title=Food Stories: The Sultan's Coffee Prohibition | last=Hopkins | first=Kate | date=2006-03-24 | accessdate=2006-09-12}}</ref> Coffee, regarded as a Muslim drink, was prohibited to Ethiopian Orthodox Christians until as late as 1889; it is now considered a national drink of Ethiopia for people of all faiths. Its early association in Europe with rebellious political activities led to its banning in England, among other places.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Allen
| first =Stewart
| title =The Devil's Cup
| publisher =Random House
| date =
| location =
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn =978-0345441492 }}</ref>
A contemporary example of coffee prohibition can be found in [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref>http://www.coffeefacts.com/ Coffee abstinence</ref> The organization claims that it is both physically and spiritually unhealthy to consume coffee.<ref name="beliefnet-mormons">{{cite web |publisher=Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|url=http://www.beliefnet.com/story/98/story_9838_1.html|title=Who Are the Mormons?}}</ref> This comes from the Mormon doctrine of health, given in 1833 by Mormon founder [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]], in a revelation called the [[Word of Wisdom]]. It does not identify coffee by name, but includes the statement that "hot drinks are not for the belly", which has been interpreted to forbid both coffee and [[tea]].<ref name="beliefnet-mormons"/>
==Health and pharmacology==
{{main|Coffee and health}}
Coffee ingestion on average is about a third of that of [[tap water]] in North America and Europe.<ref name=tap /> Worldwide, 6.7 million [[Tonne|metric tons]] of coffee were produced annually in 1998–2000, and the forecast is a rise to 7 million metric tons annually by 2010.<ref name="FAO">{{cite web | url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5143e/y5143e0v.htm | title= Coffee | author=FAO| work= Medium-term prospects for agricultural commodities. Projections to the year 2010 | year= 2003 | accessdate=2006-10-16 | quote= Global output is expected to reach 7.0 million metric tons (117 million bags) by 2010 compared to 6.7 million metric tons (111 million bags) in 1998–2000 }}</ref>
Scientific studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and an array of medical conditions. Findings are contradictory as to whether coffee has any specific health benefits, and results are similarly conflicting regarding negative effects of coffee consumption.<ref name="Kummer">{{
cite book
|author = Kummer, Corby
|year = 2003
|title = The Joy of Coffee
|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=qNLrJqgfg7wC
|chapter = Caffeine and Decaf
|chapterurl = http://books.google.com/books?id=qNLrJqgfg7wC&pg=PA151&sig=zL7_XqPYPeBVq8vs3ukYFuwjn2I
|pages = 160-165
|publisher = Houghton Mifflin Cookbooks
|isbn = 0618302409
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref>
Coffee appears to reduce the risk of [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[heart disease]], [[diabetes mellitus type 2]], [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]],<ref>{{
cite journal
|last = Klatsky
|first = Arthur L.
|coauthors = Morton, C.; Udaltsova, N.; Friedman, D.
|date = 2006
|title = Coffee, Cirrhosis, and Transaminase Enzymes
|url = http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/11/1190
|journal = Archives of Internal Medicine
|volume = 166
|issue = 11
|pages = 1190–1195
|doi = 10.1001/archinte.166.11.1190
|pmid = 16772246
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> and [[gout]], but it increases the risk of [[acid reflux]] and associated diseases.<ref>http://heartburn.about.com/cs/causes/a/heartburncauses.htm</ref> Some health effects of coffee are due to its [[caffeine]] content, as the benefits are only observed in those who drink caffeinated coffee, while others appear to be due to other components.<ref>{{
cite journal
|author = Pereira, Mark A.
|coauthors = Parker, D.; Folsom, A.R.
|year = 2006
|title = Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: an 11-year prospective study of 28 812 postmenopausal women.
|url = http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/166/12/1311
|journal = Archives of Internal Medicine
|volume = 166
|issue = 12
|pages = 1311–1316
|pmid = 16801515
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> For example, the [[antioxidant]]s in coffee prevent [[Radical (chemistry)|free radicals]] from causing cell damage.<ref>{{
cite web
|last = Bakalar
|first = Nicholas
|date = 2006-08-15
|title = Coffee as a Health Drink? Studies Find Some Benefits
|publisher = New York Times
|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/15/health/nutrition/15coff.html?ex=1313294400&en=d420f19ee1c77365&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss
|accessdate = 2007-07-28
}}</ref>
Coffee's negative health effects are mostly due to its [[caffeine]] content. Research suggests that drinking caffeinated coffee can cause a temporary increase in the stiffening of arterial walls.<ref>{{
cite journal
|last = Mahmud
|first = A.
|coauthors = Feely, J.
|year = 2001
|title = Acute Effect of Caffeine on Arterial Stiffness and Aortic Pressure Waveform
|url = http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/38/2/227
|journal = Hypertension
|volume = 38
|issue = 2
|pages = 227–231
|pmid = 11509481
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> Excess coffee consumption may lead to a [[magnesium deficiency (medicine)|magnesium deficiency]] or [[hypomagnesaemia]],<ref>{{
cite journal
|author = Johnson, S.
|date = 2001
|title = The multifaceted and widespread pathology of magnesium deficiency
|url = http://www.george-eby-research.com/html/wide-mag-deficiency-path.pdf
|format = PDF
|journal = Medical Hypotheses
|volume = 56
|issue = 2
|pages = 163-170
|publisher = Harcourt Publishers Ltd
|doi = 10.1054/mehy.2000.1133
|pmid = 11425281
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> and may be a risk factor for [[coronary heart disease]]. Some studies suggest that it may have a mixed effect on [[short-term memory]], by improving it when the information to be recalled is related to the current [[train of thought]], but making it more difficult to recall unrelated information.<ref>{{
cite web
|author = BBC News
|coauthors = Lesk, Valerie
|date = 2004-07-20
|title = A coffee can make you forgetful
|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3909085.stm
|publisher = BBC News
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> About 10% of people with a moderate daily intake (235 mg per day) reported increased depression and anxiety when caffeine was withdrawn,<ref>{{
cite journal
|author = Smith, A.
|year = 2002
|title = Effects of caffeine on human behavior
|url = http://www.erowid.org//references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&ID=6685&DocPartID=6196
|journal = Food and Chemical Toxicology
|volume = 40
|issue = 9
|pages = 1243-1255
|doi = 10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0
|pmid = 12204388
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> and about 15% of the general population report having stopped caffeine use completely, citing concern about health and unpleasant side effects.<ref>{{
cite web
|author = Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
|year = 2003
|title = Use and Common Sources of Caffeine
|url = http://www.caffeinedependence.org/caffeine_dependence.html#sources
|work = Information about Caffeine Dependence
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref> Nevertheless, the mainstream view of medical experts is that drinking three 8-ounce (236 ml) cups of coffee per day (considered average or moderate consumption) does not have significant health risks for adults.<ref name="MedLinePlus_caffeine">{{
cite web
|author = Haines, Cynthia Dennison
|year = 2007
|title = Caffeine in the diet
|url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002445.htm
|work = MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
|publisher = The U.S. National Library of Medicine
|accessdate = 2008-02-23
}}</ref>
American scientist Yaser Dorri has suggested that the smell of coffee can restore [[appetite]] and refresh [[olfactory]] receptors. He suggests that people can regain their appetite after cooking by smelling coffee beans, and that this method might also be used for research animals.<ref name="Awaken olfactory receptors ">{{cite journal | last = Dorri| first = Yaser | coauthors = Sabeghi Maryam, Kurien BT | title = Awaken olfactory receptors of humans and experimental animals by coffee odourants to induce appetite| journal = Med Hypotheses| volume = 69 | issue = 3 | pages = 508–9| date = 2007 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17331659?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum|accessdate = Jan/24/2008 | doi = 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.12.048}}</ref>
[[Coffee enema]]s may have properties which may help [[cancer]] patients.<ref>Moss, Ph.D., Ralph W. "The Cancer Chronicles" 2nd ed. Austin, Texas: 1994. (6-7)</ref>
===Caffeine content===
[[Image:Caffeine.svg|180px|thumb|right|[[Caffeine]] molecule]]Depending on the type of coffee and method of preparation, the caffeine content of a single serving can vary greatly. On average, a single cup of coffee of about 207 [[Milliliter#SI prefixes applied to the litre|milliliters]] (7 [[fluid ounce]]s) or a single shot of espresso of about 30 mL (1oz) can be expected to contain the following amounts of caffeine:<ref> Coffee and Caffeine's Frequently Asked Questions from the alt.drugs.caffeine, alt.coffee, rec.food.drink.coffee Newsgroups, January 7, 1998 </ref><ref name ="Bunker">{{cite journal |last=Bunker |first=M. L. |coauthors=McWilliams, M. |year=1979 |month=January |journal=J. Am. Diet. Assoc. |volume=74 |pages=28–32|title=Caffeine content of common beverages }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| last =Mayo Clinic Staff
| title =Caffeine content of common beverages
| publisher =Mayo Clinic
| url =http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/caffeine/AN01211
| accessdate = 2007-07-22 }}</ref>
*[[drip brew|Drip coffee]]: 115–175 mg
*[[Espresso]]: 60 mg
*Brewed/Pressed: 80–135 mg
*[[Instant coffee|Instant]]: 65–100 mg
*[[Decaffeination|Decaf, brewed]]: 3–4 mg
*[[Instant coffee#Decaffeinated instant coffee|Decaf, instant]]: 2–3 mg
==References==<!-- Systematics and Biodiversity 4 (1): 1–8 doi:10.1017/S1477200005001878 -->
{{reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{Citation|title=The World in So Many Words|first=Allan A.|last=Metcalf|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1999|isbn=0395959209<!--|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4O0W5XyQVCYC&pg=PA123&dq=sash+etymology+arabic&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=iuzjUzyPphZKCIJLAwJZE7beIEI#PPA123,M1-->}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Coffee}}
* [http://www.cosic.org Coffee and caffeine health information] - A collection of peer reviewed and journal published studies on coffee health benefits is evaluated, cited and summarized.
* Benjamin Joffe-Walt and Oliver Burkeman, ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[16 September]] [[2005]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,2763,1571608,00.html "Coffee trail"] - from Ethiopian village of Choche to London coffee shop
* [http://www.daleysfruit.com.au/plant/Coffee.htm Coffee Tree] - Growing and cultural information with [[soil type]]s and pruning instructions
* [http://top-coffee-review.com/wiki Top Coffee Review] A Coffee Review Blog of the latest types of coffee, makers, grinders, etc.
* [http://www.litmuszine.com/feature/5.14.07.html Coffee on a Grande Scale] - Article about the biology, chemistry, and physics of coffee production
* [http://www.archive.org/details/ThisisCo1961 This is Coffee] - Short tribute to coffee in the form of a [[documentary film]] (1961), made by "The Coffee Brewing Institute". The movie includes some do's and don'ts of making "the perfect cup of coffee" and an overview of different ways to enjoy coffee throughout the world.
* [http://www.lokeshdhakar.com/2007/08/20/an-illustrated-coffee-guide An Illustrated Coffee Guide] - Side-by-side diagrams of a few common espresso drinks
* {{cite book
| author= F. Engelmann, M. E. Dulloo, C. Astorga, S. Dussert and F. Anthony
| date=2007
| title= Complementary strategies for ex situ conservation of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) genetic resources. A case study in CATIE, Costa Rica
| series= Topical reviews in Agricultural Biodiversity
| publisher= Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. |url= http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=1244
}}
* [http://www.bioversityinternational.org/Publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=365 Descriptors for Coffee (Coffea spp. and Psilanthus spp.)]
* [http://www.espressoitaliano.org/index_en.asp?lang=en Italian Espresso National Institute]
* [http://www.assaggiatoricaffe.org/en/content/view/full/246 International Institute of Coffee Tasters]
* [http://www.coffeetasters.org/newsletter/en/ Coffee Taster], the free newsletter of the International Institute of Coffee Tasters, featuring articles on the quality of espresso, chemical and sensory analysis, market trends
* [http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/coffee Geography of Coffee]
* [http://www.coffeehabitat.com/ Coffee & Conservation] - Web site devoted to sustainable coffee issues, focusing on the environment and biodiversity.
* [http://www.coffeehabitat.com/2006/05/botanical_varie.html Botanical varieties of coffee] - Discussion of the three commercial botanical coffee species, and their hybrids and varietals.
{{Coffee}}
[[Category:Coffee| ]]
[[Category:Infusions]]
[[Category:Arabic loanwords]]
[[Category:Arabic culture]]
[[Category:Culture of Seattle, Washington]]
[[Category:Crops]]
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|no}}
{{Link FA|th}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Koffie]]
[[am:ቡና]]
[[ar:قهوة]]
[[ast:Café]]
[[az:Qəhvə]]
[[bn:কফি]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ka-pi]]
[[be:Кава]]
[[be-x-old:Кава]]
[[bs:Kahva]]
[[br:Kafe]]
[[bg:Кафе]]
[[ca:Cafè]]
[[cs:Káva]]
[[cy:Coffi]]
[[da:Kaffe]]
[[de:Kaffee]]
[[et:Kohv]]
[[el:Καφές]]
[[es:Café]]
[[eo:Kafo]]
[[eu:Kafe]]
[[fa:قهوه]]
[[fr:Café]]
[[fur:Cafè]]
[[ga:Caife]]
[[gan:咖啡]]
[[gd:Cofaidh]]
[[gl:Café]]
[[hak:Kâ-pî]]
[[ko:커피]]
[[hy:Սուրճ]]
[[hi:कॉफ़ी]]
[[hr:Kava]]
[[id:Kopi]]
[[os:Къофи]]
[[is:Kaffi]]
[[it:Caffè]]
[[he:קפה]]
[[jv:Kopi]]
[[kn:ಕಾಫಿ]]
[[ka:ყავა]]
[[rw:Ikawa]]
[[sw:Kahawa]]
[[ht:Kafe]]
[[ku:Qehwe]]
[[la:Coffeum]]
[[lt:Kava]]
[[jbo:ckafi]]
[[hu:Kávé]]
[[mk:Кафе]]
[[ml:കാപ്പി (പാനീയം)]]
[[mr:कॉफी]]
[[ms:Kopi]]
[[nl:Koffie]]
[[nds-nl:Koffie]]
[[ja:コーヒー]]
[[no:Kaffe]]
[[nn:Kaffi]]
[[oc:Cafè]]
[[uz:Qahva]]
[[pl:Kawa]]
[[pt:Café]]
[[ro:Cafea]]
[[qu:Kaphiy]]
[[ru:Кофе]]
[[se:Gáffe]]
[[sq:Kafeja]]
[[scn:Café]]
[[simple:Coffee]]
[[sk:Káva]]
[[sl:Kava]]
[[sr:Кафа]]
[[fi:Kahvi]]
[[sv:Kaffe]]
[[tl:Kape]]
[[ta:காப்பி]]
[[te:కాఫీ]]
[[th:กาแฟ]]
[[vi:Cà phê]]
[[tpi:Kopi]]
[[chr:ᎧᏫ]]
[[tr:Kahve]]
[[uk:Кава]]
[[ur:کافی]]
[[vls:Kaffie]]
[[yi:קאווע]]
[[zh-yue:咖啡]]
[[bat-smg:Kava]]
[[zh:咖啡]]