Cold War (1985–1991)
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{{ColdWar}}
The '''Cold War period of 1985 to 1991''' began with the rise of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as Soviet leader and ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
==Thaw in relations==
East-West tensions eased after the appointment of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. After the deaths of three successive elderly Soviet leaders since 1982, the Soviet [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]] elected Gorbachev [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party General Secretary]] in March 1985, marking the rise of a new generation of leadership. Under Gorbachev, relatively young reform-oriented [[Technocracy (bureaucratic)|technocrats]], who had begun their careers in the heyday of "[[History of the Soviet Union (1953–1985)|de-Stalinization]]" under reformist leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1953-1965), rapidly consolidated power, providing new momentum for political and economic liberalization, and the impetus for cultivating warmer relations and trade with the West.
[[Image:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Reagan and Gorbachev during their first summit meeting in the beach house.]]
On the Western front, American President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s administration had taken a hard line against the Soviet Union, and persuaded the [[Saudi Arabia]]n oil companies to increase oil production.<ref name="iet">{{cite web|url=http://www.iet.ru/files/persona/gaidar/un_en.htm|title=Public Expectations and Trust towards the Government: Post-Revolution Stabilization and its Discontents|accessdate=2008-03-15|author=Gaidar, Yegor}}</ref> This led to a three-times drop in the prices of oil, and oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.<ref name="iet"/> Following the USSR's previous large military buildup, President Reagan ordered an enormous peacetime defense buildup of the [[United States Military]]; the Soviets did not respond to this by building up their military because the military expenses, in combination with [[Collectivization in the USSR|colectivized agriculture]] in the nation, and innefficient [[Planned economy|planned manufacturing]], proved a heavy burden for the [[Economy of the Soviet Union|Soviet economy]]. It was already staganant and in a poor state prior to the tenure of Mikhail Gorbachev who, despite significant attempts at reform, was unable to revitalise the economy.<ref name="Gaidar">{{cite book|last=Gaidar|first=Yegor|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|date=2007-10-17|isbn=5824307598|language=Russian|pages=190-210}}</ref>
In 1985, Reagan and Gorbachev held their first of four "summit" meetings, this one in [[Geneva, Switzerland]]. After discussing policy, facts, etc., Reagan invited Gorbachev to go with him to a small house near the beach. The two leaders spoke in that house well over their time limit, but came out with the news that they had planned two more (soon three more) summits.
The second summit took place the following year, on [[October 11]], in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]. The [[Reykjavik Summit|meeting]] was held to pursue discussions about scaling back their [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]] arsenals in [[Europe]]. The talks came close to achieving an overall breakthrough on [[arms control|nuclear arms control]], but ended in failure due to Reagan's proposed [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] and Gorbachev's proposed cancellation of it. The result was a dual approach of increased cooperation, combined with Soviet economic restructuring (''[[perestroika]]'') and democratization (''[[glasnost]]''), which eventually made it impossible for Gorbachev to reassert central control and influence over [[Warsaw Pact]] member states.
[[Image:ReaganBerlinWall.jpg|thumb|230px|[[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] delivers his famed speech at the [[Berlin Wall]] in June 1987, in which he called for [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet General Secretary]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to "[[Tear down this wall|Tear Down This Wall!]]"]]
On [[June 12]], [[1987]], Reagan [[tear down this wall|challenged Gorbachev to go further]] with his reforms and democrization by tearing down the [[Berlin Wall]]. In a speech at the [[Brandenburg Gate]] next to the wall, Reagan stated:
{{cquote|General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate; Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-06-12-reagan-speech_N.htm|title=Reagan's 'tear down this wall' speech turns 20|work=USA Today|date=2007-06-12|accessdate=2008-03-20}}</ref>}}
While the aging Eastern European leaders kept their states in the grip of "normalization", Gorbachev's reformist policies in the Soviet Union exposed how a once revolutionary Communist Party had become moribund at the very center of the system. The growing public disapproval of the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]], and the socio-political effects of the [[Chernobyl accident]] in [[Ukraine]] increased public support for these policies. By the spring of 1989, the USSR had not only experienced lively media debate, but had also held its first multi-candidate elections. For the first time in recent history, the force of liberalization was spreading from West to East.
===Reform spreads through Eastern Europe===
As Gorbachev-inspired waves of reform propagated throughout the Eastern bloc, grassroots organizations, such as [[Poland]]'s [[Solidarity]] movement, rapidly gained ground. In 1989, the Communist governments in Poland and [[Hungary]] became the first to negotiate the organizing of competitive elections. In [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[German Democratic Republic|East Germany]], mass protests unseated entrenched Communist leaders. The Communist regimes in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a [[Romanian Revolution of 1989|violent uprising]]. Attitudes had changed enough that [[US Secretary of State]] [[James Baker]] suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed. <ref>Garthoof, Raymond L. "The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War" (Washington: Brookings Institution, 1994).</ref> The tidal wave of change culminated with the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of Eastern European Communist governments and graphically ended the [[Iron Curtain]] divide of Europe.
The collapse of the Eastern European governments with Gorbachev's tacit consent inadvertently encouraged several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]] to seek greater independence from Moscow's rule. Agitation for independence in the [[Baltic States]] led to first [[Lithuania]], and then [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]], declaring their independence. Disaffection in the other republics was met by promises of greater decentralization. More open elections led to the election of candidates opposed to Communist Party rule.
In an attempt to halt the rapid changes to the system, a group of Soviet hard-liners represented by Vice-President [[Gennadi Yanayev]] launched a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|coup]] overthrowing Gorbachev in August 1991. Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] rallied the people and much of the army against the coup and the effort collapsed. Although restored to power, Gorbachev's authority had been irreparably undermined. In September, the Baltic states were granted independence. On [[December 1]], [[Ukraine]] withdrew from the USSR. On [[December 31]], [[1991]] the USSR officially dissolved, breaking up into fifteen separate nations.
==Legacy==
[[Russia]] and the other Soviet successor states have faced a chaotic and harsh transition from a command economy to free-market capitalism following the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)#Yeltsin and the dissolution of the USSR|collapse of the Soviet Union]]. A large percentage of the population currently lives in poverty. GDP growth also declined, and life expectancy dropped sharply. Living conditions have also declined in other parts of the former Eastern bloc.
[[Image:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|250px|right|U.S. President Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev signing the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|INF Treaty]], 1987.]]
In addition, the poverty and desperation of the Russians and Ukrainians post-Cold War have led to the sale of many advanced Cold War-developed weapons systems, especially very capable modern upgraded versions, around the globe. World-class tanks ([[T-80|T-80/T-84]]), jet fighters ([[MiG-29]] and [[Su-27|Su-27/30/33]]), surface-to-air missile systems ([[SA-10 Grumble|S-300P]], [[SA-12 Gladiator/Giant|S-300V]], [[SA-15 Gauntlet|9K332]] and [[Igla]]) and others have been placed on the market in order to obtain some much-needed cash. This poses a possible problem for western powers in coming decades as they increasingly find hostile countries equipped with weapons which were designed by the Soviets to defeat them. The post-Cold War era saw a period of unprecedented prosperity in the West, especially in the United States, and a wave of democratization throughout Latin America, Africa, and Eastern Europe.
Sociologist [[Immanuel Wallerstein]] expresses a less triumphalist view, arguing that the end of the Cold War is a prelude to the breakdown of ''[[Pax Americana]]''. In his essay "''Pax Americana'' is Over," Wallerstein argues, "The collapse of communism in effect signified the collapse of liberalism, removing the only ideological justification behind US hegemony, a justification tacitly supported by liberalism's ostensible ideological opponent."<ref>Wallerstein, Immanuel. "Pax Americana is Over" [http://www.uni-muenster.de/PeaCon/global-texte/g-m/n/wallerstein-eagle.htm] </ref>
Cold War institutions such as NATO have found new roles, while other products of the Cold War-era such as the [[European Union]] have become more successful.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The [[space exploration]] has petered out in both the United States and Russia without the competitive pressure of the [[space race]]. [[Military decorations of the Cold War|Military decorations]] have become more common, as they were created, and bestowed, by the major powers during the near 50 years of undeclared hostilities.
==Territorial gains and losses==
===Nations that gained territory after the Cold War===
*[[Germany]] (as the [[successor state]] of [[West Germany]])
*[[Yemen]] (as the successor state of [[South Yemen]])
===Nations that lost territory after the Cold War===
*[[Russia]] (as the successor state of [[Soviet Union]])
*[[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (as the successor state of [[Socialist Yugoslavia]])
*[[Czech Republic]] (as the successor state of [[Czechoslovakia]])
*[[Ethiopia]] (at the end of [[Eritrean War of Independence]])
*[[South Africa]] (with the transference of [[Walvis Bay]] to [[Namibia]] at the end of the [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid era|Apartheid regime]])
===Philosophy of the Cold War===
Throughout the Cold War philosophy was in the undergrowth of the war between the United States and Soviet Union diplomatically.
*An aggressive enemy should be handled with an option that does not escalate the situation or humiliate them. A surprise attack on the enemy is not a preferred course of action because it incites a violent response and worsens the situation.
*A negotiated solution serves the interests of not only a military solution, but also the interests of both parties. Firmness, flexibility, and willingness to consult the other side confidentially, regardless of the situation, are necessary attributes.
*Nuclear weapons, due to their destructivity, must be dealt with by a high-tech, highly skilled intelligence community.
==Timeline of main events==
*[[January 20]], [[1985]] - [[Ronald Reagan]] is sworn in for a second term as [[President of the United States]]
*[[March 10]], [[1985]] - [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] [[Konstantin Chernenko]] dies
*[[March 11]], [[1985]] - [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Politburo]] member [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party
*[[April 26]], [[1986]] - [[Chernobyl disaster]] in [[Prypiat, Ukraine|Prypiat]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]]
*January 1987 - Gorbachev introduces the policy of ''[[demokratizatsiya]]'' in the Soviet Union
*[[March 4]], [[1987]] - In a televised address, Reagan takes full responsibility of [[Iran-Contra Affair]]
*[[June 12]], [[1987]] - “[[Tear down this wall]]” speech by Reagan in [[West Berlin]]
*[[December 8]], [[1987]] - The [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] is signed in [[Washington]]
*[[February 20]], [[1988]] - The regional soviet of [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast|Nagorno-Karabakh]] in [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan]] decides to be part of [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenia]], but the Kremlin refuses to do it.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,966940,00.html Soviet Union Defiance in the Streets], [[Time Magzine|''Time'']], March 07, 1988</ref> The following [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]] would be the first of the internal conflicts in the Soviet Union that would became the [[Post-Soviet states#Separatist conflicts|post-Soviet separatist conflicts]]
*[[August 17]], [[1988]] - [[Pakistan]]i president [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] dies
*[[August 20]], [[1988]] - End of [[Iran-Iraq War]]
*[[September 17]], [[1988]] - [[1988 Summer Olympics|Summer Olympics]] in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]; it’s the first time since [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976]] that both Soviet Union and the United States participate
*[[October 5]], [[1988]] - [[Chile]]an president [[Augusto Pinochet]] is defeated in a [[Chilean transition to democracy|nationwide referendum]]
*[[January 20]], [[1989]] - [[George H. W. Bush]] becomes president of the United States
*February 1989 - End of [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]
*[[June 3]], [[1989]] - [[Iran]]ian leader [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] dies
*[[June 4]], [[1989]] - [[Tiananmen Square Massacre]] in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[August 14]], [[1989]] - [[South Africa]]n president [[Pieter Botha]] resigns in reaction to the implementation of [[New York Accords]]
*[[August 23]], [[1989]] - Soviet Politburo member [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|Alexander Yakovlev]] denounces the secret protocols of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]]
*[[November 9]], [[1989]] - Fall of the [[Berlin Wall]]
*December 2-3, 1989 - [[Malta Summit]] between Bush and Gorbachev, who said: ''“I assured the President of the United States that I will never start a hot war against the USA.”''
*[[December 25]], [[1989]] - Execution of [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]
*[[December 29]], [[1989]] - [[Václav Havel]] assumes the presidency of Czechoslovakia at the conclusion of [[Velvet Revolution]]
*[[January 13]], [[1990]] - End of [[Stasi]], the [[secret police]] of [[East Germany]]
*[[March 15]], [[1990]] - Inauguration of Gorbachev as the first [[President of the Soviet Union]]
*[[April 25]], [[1990]] - [[Violeta Chamorro]] is sworn in as president of [[Nicaragua]], ending the [[Sandinista]] rule and the [[Contras]] insurgency
*[[May 22]], [[1990]] - [[South Yemen|South]] and [[North Yemen]]s are unified
*[[July 13]], [[1990]] - The [[28th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] announces the end of its [[Single-party state|monopoly of power]]
*[[August 2]], [[1990]] - Beginning of [[Gulf War]]
*[[September 12]], [[1990]] - The [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany]] is signed in [[Moscow]]
*[[October 3]], [[1990]] - Official [[reunification of Germany]]
*[[November 6]], [[1990]] - [[Hungary]] become the first [[Soviet Bloc]] country to join the [[Council of Europe]]
*[[November 19]], [[1990]] - [[NATO]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] sign the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]]
*[[November 28]], [[1990]] - [[Margaret Thatcher]] [[Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 1990|falls from power]] as [[UK Prime Minister]]; [[John Major]] takes office
*[[December 22]], [[1990]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] becomes [[president of Poland]]; [[Polish government-in-exile]] ends
*January 1991 - Money transfers from the Czech budget to [[Slovakia]] are stopped, beginning the process that would lead to [[Velvet Divorce]]
*[[February 28]], [[1991]] - End of Gulf War
*[[May 29]], [[1991]] - End of [[Eritrean War of Independence]] in [[Ethiopia]]
*[[June 27]], [[1991]] - [[Ten-Day War|Beginning]] of the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in [[Slovenia]]
*[[June 28]], [[1991]] - The last [[Comecon]] council session take place in [[Budapest]]; the organization decides to dissolve itself
*[[July 1]], [[1991]] - End of the Warsaw Pact
*[[July 10]], [[1991]] - [[Boris Yeltsin]] becomes president of [[Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic|Russia]]
*[[July 31]], [[1991]] - Ratification of [[START I]] treaty between United States and the Soviet Union
*[[August 19]], [[1991]] - Beginning of the Soviet Union [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup d'état attempt]]
*[[August 21]], [[1991]] - End of the Soviet Union coup d'état attempt
*[[August 24]], [[1991]] - Gorbachev resigns from the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
*[[September 6]], [[1991]] - The Soviet Union recognizes the independence of the [[Baltic States]]
*[[November 6]], [[1991]] - End of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] and the Soviet [[KGB]]
*[[December 8]], [[1991]] - The [[Belavezha Accords]] are signed by the leaders of [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]] and [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussia]], sealing the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]]
*[[December 25]], [[1991]] - Gorbachev resigns as Soviet President and the post is abolished; the red [[Soviet flag]] is lowered from the [[Moscow Kremlin]], and in its place the [[flag of Russian Federation|flag of the Russian Federation]] is raised. The Soviet Union ends.
==See also==
*[[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)]]
*[[History of the United States (1980-1988)]]
*[[History of the United States (1988-present)]]
*[[Post-Communism]]
*[[Timeline of Events in the Cold War]]
*[[Solidarity]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refimprove|date=March 2008}}
===Sources===
*Ball, S. J. ''The Cold War: An International History, 1947-1991'' (1998). British perspective
*Beschloss, Michael, and Strobe Talbott. ''At the Highest Levels:The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War'' (1993)
*Bialer, Seweryn and Michael Mandelbaum, eds. ''Gorbachev's Russia and American Foreign Policy'' (1988).
*Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977-1981'' (1983);
*Edmonds, Robin. ''Soviet Foreign Policy: The Brezhnev Years'' (1983)
*Gaddis, John Lewis. ''The Cold War: A New History'' (2005)
*---. ''The United States and the End of the Cold War: Implications, Reconsiderations, Provocations'' (1992)
*---. ''Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War'' (1987)]
*---, and Walter LaFeber. ''America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1992'' 7th ed. (1993)
*Garthoff, Raymond. ''The Great Transition:American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War'' (1994)
* Hogan, Michael ed. ''The End of the Cold War. Its Meaning and Implications'' (1992) articles from ''Diplomatic History'' online at JSTOR
*Kyvig, David ed. ''Reagan and the World'' (1990)
*Matlock, Jack F. ''Autopsy of an Empire'' (1995) by US ambassador to Moscow
*Mower, A. Glenn Jr. ''Human Rights and American Foreign Policy: The Carter and Reagan Experiences'' ( 1987),
*Powaski, Ronald E. ''The Cold War: The United States and the Soviet Union, 1917-1991'' (1998)
*Shultz, George P. ''Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State'' (1993).
*Sivachev, Nikolai and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians
*Smith, Gaddis. ''Morality, Reason and Power:American Diplomacy in the Carter Years'' (1986).
==External links==
*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=End%20of%20the%20Cold%20War Cold War International History Project: The End of the Cold War]
*[http://coldwarfiles.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=units.details&thisunit=17 Cold War Files: The End of the Cold War]
{{Cold War}}
[[Category:Cold War by period]]