Colombia 5222 225785579 2008-07-15T11:41:55Z Colombiano21 1134569 Pre-Columbian is right (from pre-Columbus, not pre-Colombia) {{distinguish|Columbia}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''República de Colombia''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> |conventional_long_name = Republic of Colombia |common_name = Colombia |image_flag = Flag of Colombia.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Colombia 3.svg <!-- This is the official Coat of Arms, Please don't change it, thank you--> |image_map = LocationColombia.svg |national_motto = "Libertad y Orden"{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small><br/>"Liberty and Order"</small> |national_anthem = "[[National Anthem of Colombia|Oh, Gloria Inmarcesible!]]"{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> |official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]] |capital = [[Bogotá]] |latd=4 |latm=39 |latNS=N |longd=74 |longm=3 |longEW=W |largest_city = capital |government_type = [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Colombia|President]] |leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Colombia|Vice President]] |leader_title3 = [[President of the Congress of Colombia|President of Congress]] |leader_title4 = [[Supreme Court of Colombia|President of the Supreme Court]] |leader_name1 = [[Álvaro Uribe|Álvaro Uribe Velez]] |leader_name2 = [[Francisco Santos Calderón|Francisco Santos]] |leader_name3 = [[Nancy Patricia Gutiérrez|Nancy Gutiérrez]] |leader_name4 = [[César Julio Valencia|César Valencia]] |sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |sovereignty_note = from [[Spain]] |established_event1 = Declared |established_date1 = [[July 20]], [[1810]] |established_event2 = Recognized |established_date2 = [[August 7]], [[1819]] |area_rank = 26th |area_magnitude = 1 E12 |area_km2 = 1,141,748 |area_sq_mi = 440,839 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |percent_water = 8.8 |population_estimate = 44,087,000 <!--UN WPP--> |population_estimate_rank = 29th |population_estimate_year = April 2008 |population_census = 42,888,592 |population_census_year = 2005 |population_density_km2 = 40 |population_density_sq_mi = 104 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = 161st |GNI_per_capita = $2,020 |GNI_per_capita = 123rd <!--WorldBank List--> |GDP_PPP = $337.286 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = 29th |GDP_PPP_year = 2005 <!--IMF--> |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,565 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 81st |Gini = 52 |Gini_year = 2006 |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">high</font> |HDI = {{increase}} 0.791 |HDI_rank = 75th |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |HPI = 67.2 |HPI_rank = 2nd |HPI_year = 2006 |HPI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">high</font> |currency = [[Colombian peso]] |currency_code = COP |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = -5 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.co]] |calling_code = 57 |demonym = Colombian |Happy Planet Index = 2 (by 2007) }} '''Colombia''' ({{IPAEng|kəˈlʌmbɪə}}) officially the '''Republic of Colombia''' ({{Audio-es|República de Colombia|República de Colombia.ogg}}, {{IPAes|reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja}}), is a country located in northwestern [[South America]]. Colombia is bordered to the east by [[Venezuela]]<ref name = "lablaa"> {{cite web | author = Gerhar Sandner, Beate Ratter, Wolf Dietrich Sahr and Karsten Horsx | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/geografia/ctemc/ctemc03.htm| title = Conflictos Territoriales en el Mar Caribe: El conflicto fronterizo en el Golfo de Venezuela | work = Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango| date = 1993| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language = Spanish}}</ref> and [[Brazil]];<ref name = "IBS"> {{cite web | author = The Geographer Office of the Geographer Bureau of Intelligence and Research | url = http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS174.pdf | title = Brazil-Colombia boundary| work = International Boundary Study | date = 1985-04-15| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language =English }}</ref> to the south by [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]];<ref name = "CIA"> {{cite web | author = CIA | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ec.html| title = Ecuador| work = World Fact Book | date = 2007-12-13| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language = English }}</ref> to the north by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], through the [[Caribbean Sea]]; to the north-west by [[Panama]]; and to the west by the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Colombia also shares maritime borders with the [[Caribbean]] countries of [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]] and the [[Dominican Republic]] and the [[Central American]] countries of [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Costa Rica]].<ref name = "jsicat">{{es icon}} [http://www.armada.mil.co/index.php?idcategoria=17895 Tratados Internacionales limítrofes de Colombia]</ref><ref>{{es icon}} [http://pwp.supercabletv.net.co/garcru/colombia/Colombia/mapaAstronomica.html#seccion1 Colombia - Limites territoriales]</ref> Colombia is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|26th largest nation]] in the world and the fourth-largest in South America (after Brazil, [[Argentina]], and Peru), with an area more than twice that of [[France]]. It also has the [[List of countries by population|third-largest population]] in Latin America after Brazil and [[Mexico]].<ref name = "USNEWS"> {{cite web | author =Michael Baron | url = http://www.usnews.com/blogs/barone/2007/5/10/on-novaks-book-and-colombia.html | title = On Novak's Book and Colombia | work = US News | date = 2007-05-10| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = English}}</ref> The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous tribes which had migrated from North and Central America, including the [[Muisca]], [[Quimbaya civilization|Quimbaya]], and [[Tairona]]. To the south lay the [[Inca Empire]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=lPXoMqGQkZUC] Colombia. By Krzysztof Dydynski, Published 2003 Lonely Planet Kolumbie ISBN 0864426747 </ref> The [[Spain|Spanish]] arrived in 1499, and initiated a period of conquest and colonisation which ultimately led to the creation of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] (comprising what is now Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) with its capital at [[Bogotá]].<ref name = "LABLAA6"> {{cite web | author = Nicolás del Castillo Mathieu | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/marzo1992/marzo3.htm | title = LA PRIMERA VISION DE LAS COSTAS COLOMBIANAS, Repaso de Historia | work = Revista Credencial | date = March, 1992| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 "[[Gran Colombia]]" had collapsed with the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador. Modern day Colombia, with Panama, emerged as the [[Republic of New Granada]]. The new nation experimented with federalism as the [[Granadine Confederation]] (1858), and then the [[United States of Colombia]] (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.<ref name = "CIAWFB"> {{cite web | author =CIA world fact book | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html | title = Colombia | work = CIA | date = 2008-02-28| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = English}}</ref> Panama [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|seceded]] in 1903. Colombia has a long tradition of constitutional government, and the [[Colombian Conservative Party|Conservative]] and [[Colombian Liberal Party|Liberal]] parties, founded in 1843 and 1848 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. However, tensions between the two have frequently erupted into violence, most notably in the [[Thousand Days War]] (1899-1902) and [[La Violencia]], beginning in 1948. Since the 1960s, government forces have been engaged in conflict with left-wing insurgents and illegal right-wing paramilitaries. Fuelled by the cocaine trade, this escalated dramatically in the 1990s. However, the insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary to overthrow the government, and in recent years the violence has been decreasing. Insurgents continue attacks against civilians, and large swathes of the countryside remain under guerrilla influence, but the Colombian government has stepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout the country, and now has a presence in every one of its municipalities.<ref name = "CIAWFB"> {{cite web | author =CIA world fact book | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html | title = Colombia | work = CIA | date = 2008-02-28| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = English}}</ref> Colombia is a standing [[middle power]]<ref name = "FSU"> {{cite web | author =David R. Davis, Brett Ashley Leeds and Will H. Moore | url = http://garnet.acns.fsu.edu/~whmoore/ipi/harmel.conf.pdf | title = Measuring Dissident and state behaviour: The Intranational Political Interactions (IPI) Project | work = Florida State University | date = 1998-11-21| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | language = English}}</ref> with the second largest Spanish-speaking population in the world after [[Mexico]].<ref name = "USNEWS"> {{cite web | author =Michael Baron | url = http://www.usnews.com/blogs/barone/2007/5/10/on-novaks-book-and-colombia.html | title = On Novak's Book and Colombia | work = US News | date = 2007-05-10| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = English}}</ref> It is also one of the largest manufacturers in South America. Colombia is very ethnically diverse, and the interaction between descendants of the original [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native]] inhabitants, [[Spanish people|Spanish]] colonisers, [[Africa]]n slaves and twentieth-century immigrants from [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]] has produced a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by Colombia's incredibly varied geography. The majority of the urban centres are located in the highlands of the [[Andes|Andes mountains]], but Colombian territory also encompasses [[Amazon rainforest]], [[Llanos|tropical grassland]] and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most [[megadiverse countries]] in the world.<ref name = "cwlvaj">{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=South America Banks on Regional Strategy to Safeguard Quarter of Earth's Biodiversity | date= | publisher= | url =http://www.conservation.org/xp/news/press_releases/2003/091603_andean_eng.xml | work =Conservation International | pages = | accessdate = 2007-06-29 | language = }}</ref> ==Etymology== The word "Colombia" comes from the name of [[Christopher Columbus]] (''Cristóbal Colón'' in Spanish, ''Cristoforo Colombo'' in Italian). It was conceived by the revolutionary [[Francisco de Miranda]] as a reference to all the [[the Americas|New World]], especially to those territories and colonies under [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The name was then adopted by the [[Greater Colombia|Republic of Colombia]] of 1819 formed out of the territories of the old [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] (modern day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).<ref name = "LABLAA5"> {{cite web | author = Carlos Restrepo Piedrahita | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/febrero1992/febrero2.htm | title = EL NOMBRE "COLOMBIA", El único país que lleva el nombre del Descubrimiento | work = Revista Credencial | date = February, 1992| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> In 1830, when [[Venezuela]] and [[Ecuador]] separated, the [[Cundinamarca]] region that remained became a new country: the [[Republic of New Granada]]. In 1858 New Granada officially changed its name to the [[Granadine Confederation]], then in 1863 the [[United States of Colombia]], before finally adopting its present name&nbsp;— the Republic of Colombia&nbsp;— in 1886.<ref name = "LABLAA5"> {{cite web | author = Carlos Restrepo Piedrahita | url = http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/revistas/credencial/febrero1992/febrero2.htm | title = EL NOMBRE "COLOMBIA", El único país que lleva el nombre del Descubrimiento | work = Revista Credencial | date = February, 1992| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> ==Geography and climate== {{main|Geography of Colombia}} {{see also|Natural Regions of Colombia|Geology of Colombia}} [[Image:Colombia rel 2001-2.png|thumb|right|250px|Shaded relief map of Colombia.]] Colombia is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|26th largest nation]] in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America. Located in the northwestern region of [[South America]], it is bordered to the east by [[Venezuela]] and [[Brazil]]; to the south by [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]; to the North by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], through the [[Caribbean Sea]]; to the north-west by [[Panama]]; and to the west by the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Besides the countries in South America, the Republic of Colombia is recognized to share maritime borders with the [[Caribbean]] countries of [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]], the [[Dominican Republic]] and the [[Central American]] countries of [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]].<ref name = "jsicat"/><ref>{{es icon}} [http://pwp.supercabletv.net.co/garcru/colombia/Colombia/mapaAstronomica.html#seccion1 Colombia -Limites territoriales]</ref> Colombia has more physical diversity packed into its borders than any other area of comparable size in Latin America.<ref>Benton, M. J.. (2001): "Biodiversity on land and in the sea.", en Geological Journal, vol. 36, N° 3-4</ref> Colombia has the highest diversity of [[bird]]s and [[amphibian]]s of any country on earth, with 1,815 species and 583 species, respectively, known to date.<ref>http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html</ref> The country is part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. [[Image:Los Llanos Colombia by David.png|thumb|left|250px|Los [[Llanos]] plains in [[Colombia]].]] Geologically Colombia is formed by two great territorial zones, one submerged in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean sea]] covering a total area of 828,660 km² and the second is the emerged land which is formed by the [[Andes]] mountain range and the [[Llanos]] plains that are shared with [[Venezuela]] and cover an area of some 1'143,748 km². Colombian surface features form complicated land patterns. The western third of the country is the most complex, starting at the shore of the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered; In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the [[Baudó Mountains|Serranía de Baudó]], one of the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland. [[Image:Magdalena river by Luis Perez.png|thumb|right|250px|the [[Magdalena River]] at [[Santa Cruz de Mompox]].]] The western mountain range, the ''Cordillera Occidental'', is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 13,000&nbsp;ft (4,000&nbsp;m). The [[Cauca River]] Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the ''Cordillera Central'' have summits that rise above 18,000&nbsp;ft (5,500&nbsp;m). The valley of the [[Magdalena River]], a major transportation artery, separates the ''Cordillera Central'' from the main eastern range, the ''Cordillera Oriental''. The peaks of the ''Cordillera Oriental'' are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. To the east of the country, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called ''[[Llanos|Llanos orientales]]'' part of the [[Orinoco River|Orinoco river basin]] and the jungle covered [[Amazon Region of Colombia|Amazon region]] part of the [[Amazon River|Amazon river basin]] (both basins called eastern plains) cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area. The northern plains are mostly part of the [[Caribbean Region of Colombia|Caribbean]] [[Natural Regions of Colombia|natural region]] which includes the [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] mountain range, the highest mountain by the sea and the [[Guajira Peninsula]], mostly arid with another separate formation from the Andes mountain range, the [[Serranía de Macuira]] to form the [[Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub]]. ===Climate=== {{main|Climate of Colombia}} [[Image:Nevado del tolima.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Glacier Snowy peaks of the [[Nevado del Tolima|Nevado del Tolima volcano]]. 5,200+ metres (17,060 ft)]] The climate of Colombia is determined by its proximity to the Earth's [[Equator]] predominating a [[tropical]] and [[isothermal]] climate, presenting variations within five [[Natural Regions of Colombia|natural regions]] and depending on the altitude; determined by mountain climate, temperature, humidity, and winds; influenced by the [[trade winds]] and precipitation which is influenced by the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]]. Colombia is also affected by the effects of the [[El Niño]] and [[La Niña]]. Temperatures generally decrease about 3.5 °[[Fahrenheit|F]] (2 °[[Celsius|C]]) for every 1,000-foot (300-m) increase in altitude above sea level, presenting perpetual snowy peaks to lower hot lands. Rainfall varies by location and is present in two seasons (two dry and two rainy) in Colombia presenting one of the highest rainfalls in the world in the [[Pacific Region of Colombia|Pacific region]]. Rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30&nbsp;in (75&nbsp;cm) per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200&nbsp;in (500&nbsp;cm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes. [[Image:Pacífico colombiano.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The hot and humid [[Pacific Region of Colombia|Colombian Pacific coast]], one of the rainiest in the world.]] Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below 3,300&nbsp;ft (1,000&nbsp;m), is the zone of tropical crops. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 3,300 to 6,600&nbsp;ft (1,000 to 2,000&nbsp;m). Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from 6,600 to 10,500&nbsp;ft (2,000 to 3,200&nbsp;m). In the "zona forestada" (forested zone), which is located between 10,500 and 12,800&nbsp;ft (3,200 and 3,900&nbsp;m). Treeless pastures table lands dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 12,800 to 15,100&nbsp;ft (3,900 to 4,600&nbsp;m). Above 15,100&nbsp;ft (4,600&nbsp;m), where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of permanent snow and ice. [[Flora of Colombia|Colombian Flora]] and [[Fauna of Colombia|Fauna]] also interact with climate zone patterns. Scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeastern [[steppe]] and [[desert|tropical desert]]. To the south, [[savannah]] (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the eastern plains; Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical [[rain forest]]. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. As a result Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most [[megadiverse countries]] in the world.<ref name = "cwlvaj"/> ===Environmental issues=== {{main|Environmental issues in Colombia}} [[Image:Nevado del Ruiz by Edgar.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Nevado del Ruiz|Nevado del Ruiz volcano]], erupted in 1985 causing the [[Armero tragedy]].]] The environmental issues in Colombia are caused by both natural hazards and human effects on the environment. Natural hazards are determined by the global positioning of Colombia by the [[Pacific ring of fire]] causing geological instability. Colombia has [[List of volcanoes in Colombia|15 major volcanoes]] which have caused tragedies like [[Armero tragedy|Armero]] and geological faults that have caused numerous devastating earthquakes like the [[1999 Armenia earthquake]]. Human induced deforestation have also added to the problems of geological instability and inundations during the rainy seasons which are susceptible to the [[El Nino]] and to [[La Nina]] effect, two regions are very susceptible to these mainly in the Caribbean region of Colombia; [[La Mojana Region]] and the [[Magdalena River|Magdalena river basin]] as well as the Valley of the [[Cauca River]] in the [[Pacific Region of Colombia]]. The population increase and the burning of fossil fuels and industry, among other human produced waste has contaminated the environment of major cities and nearby water sources. Participants in the [[Colombian armed conflict]] have also contributed to the pollution of the environment in Colombia. The illegally armed groups have deforested large portions of land to plant illegal crops (mostly on government designated protected areas) while the government fumigated these crops using hazardous chemicals. The guerrillas also destroyed oil pipelines creating major ecological disasters. ==History== {{main|History of Colombia|Timeline of Colombian history|La Violencia|El Bogotazo|National Front (Colombia)|Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)}} ===Pre-Columbian era=== [[Image:Muisca raft Legend of El Dorado Offerings of gold.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Zipa]] used to cover his body in gold and, from his raft, he offered treasures to the ''Guatavita'' goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of [[El Dorado]] legend.]] Approximately [[10,000 BC]] [[hunter-gatherer]] societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at "[[El Abra]]" and "Tequendama") which traded with one another and with cultures living in the [[Magdalena River]] Valley.<ref>Van der Hammen, T. and Correal, G. 1978: "Prehistoric man on the Sabana de Bogotá: data for an ecologiacal prehistory"; Paleography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 25:179-190</ref> Beginning in the first millennium BC, groups of [[Amerindian]]s developed the political system of "[[cacicazgo]]s" with a pyramidal structure of power headed by [[Cacique Nutibara Bloc|cacique]]s. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the [[Tayrona]]s in the [[Caribbean Region]], and the [[Muisca]]s in the highlands around [[Bogotá]], both of which were of the [[Chibcha]] language family. The Muisca people are considered to have had one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the [[Inca]]s.<ref>Broadbent, Sylvia 1964: Los Chibchas: organización socio-política. Série Latinoamericana 5. Bogotá: Facultad de Sociología, Universidad Nacional de Colombia</ref> ===Spanish discovery, conquest and colonization=== [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers made the first exploration of the [[Caribbean]] littoral in 1499 led by [[Rodrigo de Bastidas]]. [[Christopher Columbus]] navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, [[Vasco Nuñez de Balboa]] started the conquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he was also the first European to discover the [[Pacific Ocean]] which he called ''Mar del Sur'' (or "Sea of the South") and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to [[Peru]] and [[Chile]]. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the [[Chibchan]] and [[Carib]], currently known as the Caribbean people, whom the [[Spaniards]] conquered through warfare and alliances, while resulting disease such as [[smallpox]] and the conquest itself caused a demographic reduction among the indigenous.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html The Story Of... Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs]</ref> In the sixteenth century, [[European ethnic groups|Europeans]] began to bring slaves from Africa. ===Independence from Spain=== [[Image:Congreso de Cúcuta.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Francisco de Paula Santander]], [[Simón Bolivar]] and other heroes of the Independence of Colombia in the [[Congress of Cúcuta]].]] Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall situation. The last one, which sought outright independence from Spain, sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue in 1804 (present day [[Haiti]]), who provided a non-negligible degree of support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]]. Simón Bolívar had become the first president of Colombia and Francisco de Paula Santander was [[Vice President of Colombia|Vice President]]; when Simón Bolívar stepped down, Santander became the second president of Colombia. The rebellion finally succeeded in 1819 when the territory of the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] became the Republic of [[Greater Colombia]] organized as a Confederation along [[Ecuador]] and [[Venezuela]] ([[Panama]] was part of Colombia). ===Post-Independence and republicanism=== [[Image:Gran Colombia map 2.png|thumb|left|250px|The [[Gran Colombia]].]] Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of [[Venezuela]] and [[Quito]] (today's [[Ecuador]]) in 1830. At this time, the so-called "Department of [[Cundinamarca]]" adopted then the name "[[Republic of the New Granada|Nueva Granada]]", which it kept until 1856 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" ([[Grenadine Confederation]]). After a [[Colombian Civil War (1860-1862)|two year civil war]] in 1863, the "[[United States of Colombia]]" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody [[civil war]]s, the most significant being the [[Thousand Days War|Thousand Days civil war]] (1899 - 1902) which together with the United States of America's intentions to influence in the area (especially the [[Panama Canal]] construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of [[Panama]] in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. Colombia engulfed in a year long war with [[Peru]] over a territorial dispute involving the [[Amazonas Department]] and its capital [[Leticia, Colombia|Leticia]]. Soon after, Colombia achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as ''[[La Violencia]]'' ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly because of mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the [[Colombian Liberal Party|Liberal]] Presidential candidate [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]] on [[April 9]], [[1948]]. This assassination caused riots in [[Bogotá]] and became known as [[El Bogotazo]], the violence from these riots spread through out the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla|Gustavo Rojas]] deposed the President of Colombia in a [[coup d'etat]], and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the [[military junta]] of General [[Gabriel París Gordillo]]. After Rojas deposition the two political parties [[Colombian Conservative Party]] and [[Colombian Liberal Party]] agreed to the creation of a "National Front", whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "[[La Violencia]]", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued and many guerrillas were formally created such as the [[FARC]], [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] and [[19th of April Movement|M-19]] to fight the government and political apparatus with influences from [[Cold War]] doctrines. Emerging in the late 1970s, powerful and violent [[drug cartel]]s developed during the 1980s and 1990s. The Medellín Cartel under [[Pablo Escobar]] and the [[Cali Cartel]], in particular, exerted political, economic and social influence in Colombia during this period. These cartels also financed and influenced different illegal armed groups throughout the political spectrum. Some enemies of these allied with the guerrillas and created or influenced [[Paramilitarism in Colombia|paramilitary groups]]. The new [[Colombian Constitution of 1991]] was ratified after being drafted by the [[Constituent Assembly of Colombia]]. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights. The new constitution initially prohibited the extradition of Colombian nationals. There were accusations of lobbying by drug cartels in favor of this prohibition. The cartels had previously promoted a violent campaign against extradition, leading to many [[terrorist attack]] and [[mafia]] style executions. They also tried to influence the government and political structure of Colombia by means of corruption, as in the case of the [[8000 Process]] scandal. [[Image:Ejército4.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Members of the [[Colombian National Army]] during a field training exercise.]] In recent years, the country has continued to be plagued by the effects of the [[Illegal drug trade|drug trade]], [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[insurgent|insurgencies]] like [[FARC]] and paramilitary groups such as the [[United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia|AUC]] (later demobilized, though paramilitarism remains active), which along with other minor factions have engaged in a bloody internal [[Colombian Armed Conflict|armed conflict]]. President [[Andrés Pastrana]] and the FARC attempted to negotiate a solution to the conflict between 1998 and 2002 but failed to do so. President Andrés Pastrana also began to implement the [[Plan Colombia]] initiative, with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong [[narcotic|anti-narcotic]] strategy. During the presidency of [[Álvaro Uribe]], who was elected on the promise of applying military pressure on the FARC and other criminal groups, some security indicators have improved, showing a decrease in reported [[Kidnappings in Colombia|kidnappings]] (from 3700 in the year 2000 to 800 in 2005) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between July 2002 and May 2005 and of the terrorist guerrila itself reduced from 16.900 insurgents to 8.900 insurgents. It is argued that these improvements have favored economic growth and tourism.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/la/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7121789 Come to Sunny Colombia] '''The Economist''', [[29 June]] [[2006]].</ref> The [[2006–2007 Colombian parapolitics scandal]] emerged due to the revelations and judicial implications of past and present links between [[paramilitarism in Colombia|paramilitary groups]], mainly the [[United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia|AUC]], and some government officials and many politicians, most of them allied to the governing administration.<ref>[http://www.polodemocratico.net/Por-que-la-parapolitica {{es icon}} Polo Democratico Alternativo ¿Por qué la parapolítica? February 26, 2007. Retrieved on August 19, 2007]</ref> ==Government, law and politics== {{main|Government of Colombia}} {{see also|Colombian Constitution of 1991}} [[Image:Casa presidencial de Bogotá.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''[[Casa de Nariño]]'', the presidential palace in [[Bogotá]] houses the [[President of Colombia]] and maximum representative of the [[Executive Branch of Colombia]].]] The [[Government of Colombia]] takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]] as established in the [[Colombian Constitution of 1991]]. The Colombian government is divided into three branches of power; the '''[[Executive Branch of Colombia|executive]]''', '''[[Legislative Branch of Colombia|legislative]]''' and '''[[Judicial Branch of Colombia|judicial]]''' with special '''[[Control institutions of Colombia|control institutions]]''' and '''[[Electoral Insitutions of Colombia|electoral institutions]]'''. The [[President of Colombia]] is the highest representative of the executive branch of government in Colombia and is also the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] with supreme administrative authority, followed by the [[Vice President of Colombia|Vice President]] and the [[Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia]]. At a provincial level the executive is managed by [[List of Colombian Department Governors|department governors]], [[municipalities of Colombia|municipal mayors]] at municipal level and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions such as ''[[corregimiento|corregidor]]'' for corregimientos. The legislative branch of government in Colombia is represented by the [[Congress of Colombia|National Congress of Colombia]] which is formed by an upper house the [[Senate of Colombia|Senate]] and the [[Chamber of Representatives of Colombia|Chamber of Representatives]]. At a provincial level the legislative branch is represented by [[List of Colombian Department Assemblies|department assemblies]] and a municipal level with municipal councils. Both the legislative and executive branches share most of the government power while the judicial branch of Colombia functions as an independent body from the other two branches which are vested with a shared power. The judicial branch under a [[adversarial system]] is represented by the [[Supreme Court of Colombia|Supreme Court of Justice]] which is the highest entity in this branch but shared in responsibility with the [[Council of State of Colombia|Council of State]], [[Constitutional Court of Colombia|Constitutional Court]] and the [[Superior Council of the Judicature]] which also have jurisdictional and regional courts. ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|Departments of Colombia|Municipalities of Colombia}} {{see also|List of cities in Colombia|Corregimiento}} Colombia is divided into 32 [[Departments of Colombia|departments]] and one capital district which is treated as a department. There are in total 10 districts assigned to cities in Colombia including [[Bogotá]], [[Barranquilla]], [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]], [[Santa Marta]], [[Tunja]], [[Cúcuta]], [[Popayán]], [[Buenaventura, Colombia|Buenaventura]], [[Tumaco]] and [[Turbo, Antioquia|Turbo]]. Colombia is also subdivided into some [[Municipalities of Colombia|municipalities]] which form departments, each with a municipal seat capital city assigned. Colombia is also subdivided into [[corregimiento]]s which form municipalities. Each department has a local government which is headed by a department governor and its own department assembly elected for a period of four years in a regional election. Each municipality also headed by a municipal mayor and a municipal council. And for corregimientos there will be an elected corregidor or local leader. [[Image:Colombia departaments-numbered.svg|left|240px]] {| style="background:transparent;" |- valign="top" | <!--First column:--> {| style="background:transparent;" | || {{spaces|1}}'''Department''' || {{smaller|'''Capital city'''}} |- | '''1''' || [[Image:Flag of Amazonas (Colombia).svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Amazonas]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Leticia, Colombia|Leticia]]}} </tr> | '''2''' || [[Image:Flag of Antioquia.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Antioquia]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Medellín]]}} </tr> | '''3''' || [[Image:Flag of Arauca.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Arauca]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Arauca Department|Arauca]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Arauca, Arauca|Arauca]]}} </tr> | '''4''' || [[Image:Flag of Atlántico.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Atlántico]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Atlántico Department|Atlántico]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Barranquilla]]}} </tr> | '''5''' || [[Image:Flag of Bolívar.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Bolívar]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Bolívar Department|Bolívar]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Cartagena de Indias|Cartagena]]}} </tr> | '''6''' || [[Image:Flag of Boyacá.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Boyacá]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Tunja]]}} </tr> | '''7''' || [[Image:Flag of Caldas.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Caldas]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Caldas Department|Caldas]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Manizales]]}} </tr> | '''8''' || [[Image:Flag of Caquetá.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Caquetá]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Caquetá Department|Caquetá]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Florencia, Caquetá|Florencia]]}} </tr> | '''9''' || [[Image:Flag of Casanare.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Casanare]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Casanare Department|Casanare]]}}'''{{spaces|2}} || {{smaller|[[Yopal]]}} </tr> | '''10''' || [[Image:Flag of Cauca Department.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cauca]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Cauca Department|Cauca]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Popayán]]}} </tr> | '''11''' || [[Image:Flag of Cesar.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cesar]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Cesar Department|Cesar]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Valledupar]]}}{{nbsp|6}} </tr> | '''12''' || [[Image:Flag of Chocó.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Chocó]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Chocó Department|Chocó]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Quibdó]]}} </tr> | '''13''' || [[Image:Flag of Córdoba.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Córdoba]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Córdoba Department|Córdoba]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Montería]]}} </tr> | '''14''' || [[Image:Cundinamarca, Colombia (bandera).png|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Cundinamarca]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Cundinamarca Department|Cundinamarca]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Bogotá]]}} </tr> | '''15''' || [[Image:Flag of Guainía.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Guainía]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Guainía Department|Guainía]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Inírida, Guainía|Inírida]]}} </tr> | '''16''' || [[Image:Guaviare, Colombia (bandera).png|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Guaviare]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Guaviare Department|Guaviare]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[San José del Guaviare]]}} </tr> | '''17''' || [[Image:Flag of Huila.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Huila]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Huila Department|Huila]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Neiva]]}} </tr> |} | <!--Second column:--> {| style="background:transparent;" | || {{spaces|1}}'''Department''' || {{smaller|'''Capital city'''}} |- | '''18''' || [[Image:Flag of La Guajira.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of Nueva Esparta]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Guajira Department|La Guajira]]}}'''{{nbsp|2}} || {{smaller|[[Riohacha]]}} </tr> | '''19''' || [[Image:Flag of Magdalena.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Magdalena]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Magdalena Department|Magdalena]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Santa Marta]]}}{{spaces|2}} </tr> | '''20''' || [[Image:Flag of Meta.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Meta]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Meta Department|Meta]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Villavicencio, Colombia|Villavicencio]]}} </tr> | '''21''' || [[Image:Flag of Nariño.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Nariño]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Nariño Department|Nariño]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Pasto]]}} </tr> | '''22''' || [[Image:Flag of Norte de Santander.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of North Santander]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Norte de Santander Department|North Santander]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Cúcuta]]}} </tr> | '''23''' || [[Image:Flag of Putumayo.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Putumayo]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Putumayo Department|Putumayo]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Mocoa]]}} </tr> | '''24''' || [[Image:Flag of Quindío.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Quindío]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Quindío Department|Quindío]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]]}} </tr> | '''25''' || [[Image:Flag of Risaralda.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Risaralda]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Pereira, Colombia|Pereira]]}} </tr> | '''26''' || [[Image:Flag of San Andrés y Providencia.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[San Andrés y Providencia Department|San Andrés, Providencia <br> and Santa Catalina]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[San Andrés, Colombia|San Andrés]]}} </tr> | '''27''' || [[Image:Flag of Santander (Colombia).svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Santander]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Santander Department|Santander]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Bucaramanga]]}} </tr> | '''28''' || [[Image:Sucre, Colombia (bandera).png|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Sucre]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Sucre Department|Sucre]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Sincelejo]]}} </tr> | '''29''' || [[Image:Flag of Tolima.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Tolima]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Tolima Department|Tolima]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Ibagué]]}} </tr> | '''30''' || [[Image:Flag of Valle del Cauca.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Valle del Cauca]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Valle del Cauca Department|Valle del Cauca]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Cali]]}} </tr> | '''31''' || [[Image:Flag of Vaupés.svg|border|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Vichada]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Vaupés Department|Vaupés]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Mitú]]}} </tr> | '''32''' || [[Image:Flag of Vichada.svg|22x20px|Flag of the Department of Vichada]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Vichada Department|Vichada]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Puerto Carreño]]}} </tr> | '''33''' || [[Image:Flag of Bogotá.svg|22x20px|Flag of Bogotá]]{{spaces|1}}'''{{smaller|[[Bogotá, Capital District|Capital District]]}}''' || {{smaller|[[Bogotá]]**}} </tr> |} |} Some departments have also local administrative regional subdivisions such as the departments of Antioquia and Cundinamarca, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other. In the case of some department where the population is still scarce and there are security problems such as in eastern Colombian departments of Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada there special administrative definitions for territories, some are considered Department corregimientos, which are a hybrid between a corregimiento and a municipality. The difference besides the population is also subject to a cut in the assigned budget. ====Defense==== [[Image:ARC Gloria by Will White.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Tall ship]] [[ARC Gloria]], insignia of Colombia]] The executive branch of government is in charge of managing the defense affairs of Colombia with the President of Colombia being the supreme chief of the armed forces, followed by the [[Ministry of National Defense (Colombia)|Minister of Defense]], which controls the [[Military of Colombia]] and the [[Colombian National Police]] among other institutions. The Colombian military is divided into three branches with their respective chains of command; the [[Colombian National Army]], the [[Colombian Air Force]] and the [[Colombian National Armada]]. The national police functions as a [[gendarmerie]] independently from the Military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus and also separately from the national intelligence agency ''[[Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad]]''. The National Police has a presence in all municipality seats of Colombia, while the National Army is formed by divisions, regiments and special units. The Colombian National Armada is formed by the [[Colombian Marine Corps]], [[Naval Force of the Pacific]], [[Naval Force of the Caribbean]], [[Naval Force of the South]], [[Colombia Coast Guards]], [[Naval Aviation of Colombia|Naval Aviation]] and the [[Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia]]. The Colombian Air Force is formed by 13 air units: [[EMAVI]], [[ESUFA]], [[IMA]], [[CACOM 1]], [[CACOM 2]], [[CACOM 3]], [[CACOM 4]], [[CACOM 5]], [[CACOM 6]], [[CATAM]], [[CAMAN]], [[GACAR]] and [[GAORI]]. ====Foreign affairs==== {{main|Foreign relations of Colombia|Colombian diplomatic missions}} The Foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President of Colombia and managed by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Colombia)|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all the continents, but not in all countries, and also multilateral relations with [[Brussels]] (Mission to the [[European Union]]) [[Geneva]] (Permanent Mission to the United Nations and other International Organizations) [[Montevideo]] (Permanent Missions to [[ALADI]] and [[MERCOSUR]]) [[Nairobi]] (Permanent Missions to the [[United Nations]] and other International Organizations) [[New York City]] (Permanent Mission to the United Nations) [[Paris]] (Permanent Mission to [[UNESCO]]) [[Rome]] (Permanent Mission to [[FAO]]) Washington DC (Permanent Mission to the [[Organization of American States]]). The foreign relations of Colombia are mostly concentrated on combating [[illegal drug trade]], improving Colombian image in the international community, fight against terrorism, expanding the Colombian products in the global market and environmental issues. Colombia receives special military and commercial cooperation and support from the United States mainly through [[Plan Colombia]] to fight against the internal armed groups as well as special financial preferences from the European Union in certain products. ===Politics of Colombia=== {{main|Politics of Colombia|Elections in Colombia|List of political parties in Colombia}} [[Image:Image-Eleclegcol060312-03.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Voters concentrate in a voting center during the [[Colombian legislative election, 2006|legislative elections of 2006]]. As a rule, voters are not allowed to wear political propaganda in allusion to a candidate or party, or have electronic devices on their possession while voting.]] The [[Politics of Colombia]] take place in the framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]] as established in the [[Colombian Constitution of 1991]]. The constitution vested the [[National Electoral Council (Colombia)|National Electoral Council]] along with the [[National Registry of the Civil State]] with the function of organizing and controlling the [[Elections in Colombia|electoral process in Colombia]]. Since the 2005 reform the electoral process abides by the [[Law 974 of 2005]] which modified the way political parties organize and interact in the government. Colombia goes through three electoral processes to elect candidates for a period of four years; a Presidential election, for president and vice president candidates (authorized to serve one reelection, 8 years), a legislative election for congress; senate and chamber of representatives (authorized many terms through reelection) and a regional election to elect department governors, department assemblies, municipal mayors and municipal councils and Local administrative juntas (executive regional leaders are only authorized one term in office). The last [[Colombian presidential election, 2006|presidential]] and [[Colombian legislative election, 2006|legislative]] elections were on [[May 28]], [[2006]], in which president [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez|Álvaro Uribe]] was reelected by a vote of 62%, with 22% going to [[Carlos Gaviria Díaz|Carlos Gaviria]] of the [[Independent Democratic Pole|Democratic Pole]], and 12% to [[Horacio Serpa Uribe|Horacio Serpa]] of the [[Colombian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]]. Colombia's bicameral parliament is the [[Congress of Colombia]] consists of a 166-seat [[Chamber of Representatives of Colombia]] and a 102-seat [[Senate of Colombia]]. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. With congressmen, Colombia also elects the president. Department deputies, city councils and mayors are elected one year and five months after the president's and congressmen's election. The latest [[Colombian regional election, 2007|regional election]] was on [[October 28]], [[2007]] with some 27 million Colombians apt to vote to elect between some 86 thousand candidates to represent 1,098 [[Municipalities of Colombia|Colombian municipalities]] and 32 [[List of Colombian Department Governors|governors of Colombian Departments]]. Colombian authorities mobilized 167,559 soldiers and policemen in order to vigil the 9,950 voting sites.<ref>[http://www.elespectador.com/elespectador/Secciones/Detalles.aspx?idNoticia=17123&idSeccion=21 ELESPECTADOR.COM - Noticias<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The election process in the judicial system is headed by the Constitutional Court and members are appointed by the Congress of Colombia out of nominations made by the President and other high ranking tribunals, presidents of courts in the other hand are elected in internal elections. In Electoral Institutions and Control Institutions of Colombia officials are also appointed by the president and approved by congress like the [[Inspector General of Colombia]]. ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Colombia|Agriculture in Colombia}} [[Image:Colombia_-_GDP_growth_2001_2007.JPG|thumb|right|250px|GDP growth 2001-2007]] Colombia's economy is fueled by abundant natural resources, a highly literate population and relatively high-valued currency. After experiencing decades of steady growth (average [[GDP]] growth exceeded 4% in the 1970-1998 period), Colombia experienced a [[recession]] in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since 1929), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. Colombia's economy suffers from weak domestic and foreign demand, austere government budgets, and serious internal armed conflicts. [[Image:Cafe Quimbaya 2005-08-27.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Plantation of [[Colombian coffee]], [[Quindio Department|Quindio]]. Coffee is the main [[Agriculture in Colombia|agricultural export of Colombia]].]] The IMF Economic Indicators published on September 2006, forecast the Colombian GDP to reach [[US$]]156.69 billion in 2008. [[Inflation]] has been below 6% for 2004, 2005, and 2006. Colombia's main [[export]]s include manufactured goods (41.32% of exports), [[petroleum]] (28.28%), coal (13.17%), and [[Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia|coffee]] (6.25%). Unofficially, [[illegal drug trade in Colombia|illegal drugs]] are also a major export.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clune |first=Sara|title= Colombia's illegal drug trade |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/latin_america/colombia/trade.html |accessdate= 2007-11-13}}</ref> Colombia is one of the largest producers of [[pop-up book]]s in the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Montanaro |first=Ann |title=A Concise History of Pop-up and Movable Books |url=http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/libs/scua/montanar/p-intro.htm |accessdate= 2007-02-01}}</ref> Colombia is also the largest exporter of [[plantain]]s to the United States. It also exports many types of sugar crops. Within Latin America, Colombia is known as a provider of fine [[lingerie]], with the industry being centered in [[Medellín]]. All [[import]]s, exports, and the general trade balance are in record levels, and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in substantial reevaluation of the [[Colombian peso|Colombian Peso]]. The problems facing the country range from [[pension]] system problems to [[Cocaine|drug]] dealing to moderately high unemployment (12%). Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current President [[Álvaro Uribe]], which include measures designed to bring the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of gross domestic product (GDP). The government's economic policy and its controversial [[democratic security strategy]] have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in [[Latin America]]. On May 28, 2007, the American magazine BusinessWeek published an article naming Colombia the most Extreme Emerging Market on Earth.<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/07_22/b4036001.htm BusinessWeek, Colombia, The Most Extreme Emerging Market on Earth] [[May 28]], [[2007]]</ref> ===Tourism=== {{see also|Tourism in Colombia|Festivals in Colombia}} [[Image:Cartagena Beach.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Tourists in [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]].]] The Tourism industry in Colombia developed in the 1940s and has maintained a steady growth since then. The main tourist destinations are [[Bogotá]], [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]], [[Eje cafetero]], [[Santa Marta]], [[Medellín]], [[Santiago de Cali|Cali]], [[Barranquilla]], [[San Andrés, Colombia|San Andrés Island]] among others, each presenting different tourist attractions. There are different tourist season in Colombia, the two most busy are related to religious celebrations; the [[holy week]] and [[Christmas]] among other numerous [[Public holidays in Colombia|public holidays]], including the celebrations surrounding the Independence of Colombia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.extremetourist.com/destinations/guide.php?country=Colombia&PHPSESSID=adf1f96f6e668d4711b8a8d8365c1934 |title=Colombia&nbsp;— Travel, adventure, action, eco-tourism and backpacking community the world over with ExtremeTourist.com |accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref> The most notable [[Festivals in Colombia|festivities]] are the [[Cali Fair|Cali's Fair]], the [[Barranquilla's Carnival]], the [[Bogotá summer festival]], the [[Iberoamerican Theater Festival]], the [[Festival of the Flowers]], the [[Vallenato Legend Festival]], [[Carnival of Blacks and Whites]] and the [[Fiestas del Mar]]. Despite [[Travel advisory|Travel advisories]] warning not to travel to Colombia due to Colombian armed conflict, the country continues to attract more tourists in recent years. The apparent cause appears to be the current hardline approach of President Álvaro Uribe called [[democratic security]] to push rebels groups farther away from the major cities, highways and tourist sites that may attract international visitors. Since President Uribe took office in 2002, he has notably increased Colombia's stability and security by significantly boosting its military strength and police presence throughout the country. [[Image:Arrecifes.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arrecifes beach at the [[Tayrona Park]], one of main eco-tourist destinations.]] This apparently has achieved fruitful results for the [[Economy of Colombia|country's economy]], particularly international tourism. In 2006, Colombia received some 1.5 million international visitors, an astonishing increase of about 50% from the previous year. Lonely Planet, a world travel publisher, picked Colombia as one of their top 10 world destinations for 2006.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=Christian Science Monitor |title=Hot Destination: Colombia |date=[[May 9]], [[2006]] |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0509/p06s01-woam.html}}</ref> The World Tourism Organization reported in 2004 that Colombia achieved the third highest percentage increase of tourist arrivals in South America between 2000 and 2004 (9.2%). Only [[Peru]] and [[Suriname]] had higher increases during the same period.<ref> [http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/indicators/ITA_Americas.pdf International Tourist Arrivals by Country of Destination], '''Tourism Market Trends, 2005 Edition''', World Tourism Organization.</ref> Because of the improved security, Caribbean cruise ships tours stop in Cartagena and Santa Marta. To further point out the improved security in the country, in June 2007, the Travel Channel's show, ''5 Takes Latin America'', aired an episode on Colombia. Points of interest on the show were Bogotá, [[Cocora Valley]] in Salento, and the [[Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá]].<ref>[http://search.travel.discovery.com/travel/5%20Takes%20Latin%20America%20Colombia Travel Channel, 5 Takes Latin America] June 2007</ref> The varied and rich geography, flora and fauna of Colombia has also developed an [[ecotourism|eco-tourist]] industry, mostly developed in the [[List of national parks of Colombia|National Natural Parks of Colombia]] which include the areas of [[Amacayacu Park]] in the [[Amazonas Department|Department of Amazonas]], [[Colombian National Coffee Park]] in the town of [[Montenegro, Quindío]], the [[Nevado del Ruiz|Nevado del Ruiz volcano]] in [[Los Nevados|Los Nevados National Park]] (near the city of [[Manizales]]), [[Cocora valley]] in [[Salento, Quindío]], [[PANACA|PANACA theme Park]], [[PANACA Savanna Park]], [[Tayrona National Natural Park|Tayrona Park]] in the [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] mountain range (near the city of [[Santa Marta]]), the [[Tatacoa Desert]], the [[Chicamocha Canyon National Park]], [[Gorgona, Colombia|Gorgona]] and [[Malpelo Island|Malpelo]] islands, as well as [[Cabo de la Vela]] in the [[Guajira Peninsula]]. ===Transportation=== {{main|Transportation in Colombia}} [[Image:Tunel de Occidente.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Occidente tunnel, [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]].]] Colombia has a network of national highways maintained by the ''[[Instituto Nacional de Vías]]'' or INVIAS (National Institute of Roadways) government agency under the [[Ministry of Transport (Colombia)|Ministry of Transport]]. The [[Pan-American Highway]] travels through Colombia, connecting the country with Venezuela to the east and Ecuador to the south. Colombia's principal airport is [[El Dorado International Airport]] in [[Bogotá]]. Several national airlines ([[Avianca]], [[AeroRepública]], [[AIRES]] , [[SATENA]] and [[EasyFly]], ), and international airlines (such as [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[American Airlines]], [[Varig]], [[Copa]], [[Continental]], [[Delta Air Lines|Delta]], [[Air Canada]], [[Air France]], [[Aerolineas Argentinas]], [[Aerogal]], [[TAME]], [[TACA]]) operate from El Dorado. Bogotá's airport is one of the largest and most expensive in Latin America. Because of its central location in Colombia and America, it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers. ===Biofuels=== Colombia is discussing current trends and challenges as well as recent international developments in the [[biofuel]]s sector with the intention of contributing to the development of a sustainable and competitive biofuels strategy for Colombia and the region. <ref>[http://www.ceelat.org/ : c e e l a t :<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <ref>http://www.ceelat.org/Program.pdf.zip</ref> Arturo Infante Villarreal is the National Biofuels Coordinator, Department of National Planning<ref> http://www.ars.usda.gov/meetings/Biofuel2007/files/Intl%2520Perspectives%2520-%2520Other%2520Papers.doc</ref> ==Demographics== {{main|Demographics of Colombia}} [[Image:Feria-cali-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Colombian people at the Cali's Fair]] With approximately 43.6 million people in 2006,<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html Colombia], '''The World Factbook''', U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, updated [[12 December]] [[2006]].</ref> Colombia is the third-most populous country in [[Latin America]], after [[Brazil]] and [[Mexico]]. Movement from rural to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-twentieth century, but has since tapered off. The urban population increased from 31% of the total population in 1938, to 57% in 1951 and about 70% by 1990. Currently the figure is about 77%. Thirty cities have a population of 100,000 or more. The nine eastern lowlands departments, constituting about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per sq mi.). Colombia's total population in 2015 is projected to be more than 52 million.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_COL.html Colombia], '''Human Development Report 2006''', United Nations Development Programme.</ref> [[Image:Afro Colombianos by Alejandra Quintero Sinisterra.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Afro-Colombian]] children]] The country has a diverse population that reflects its colourful history and the peoples that have populated here from ancient times to the present. The historic amalgam of the different main groups forms the basics of Colombia's current demographics: [[European ethnic groups|European]] immigrants, [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]] Natives, [[African]]s, Asians, [[Arab diaspora|Middle Easterners]] and other recent immigrants. Many of the indigenous peoples were absorbed into the [[mestizo]] population, but the remaining 700,000 currently represent over eighty-five distinct cultures. The European immigrants were primarily [[Spanish people|Spanish]] colonists, but a number of other Europeans ([[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[German people|German]], [[Italian people|Italian]], [[French people|French]], [[Swiss (people)|Swiss]], [[Belgian]], also many North Americans) migrated to the Caribbean region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in smaller numbers Polish, Lithuanian, English and Croatian communities immigrated during the Second World War and the [[Cold War]]. For example, former Bogotá mayor [[Antanas Mockus]] is the son of [[Lithuania]]n immigrants. [[Black people|Africans]] were brought as [[slave]]s, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century, and continuing into the 19th century. Other immigrant populations include Asians and Middle Easterners, particularly Lebanese, Jordanians, Syrians, Chinese, Japanese and Koreans. ===Indigenous peoples=== {{main|Indigenous peoples in Colombia}} [[Image:Mujer Wayuu woman Guajira Colombia by Jenni Contreras.png|thumb|right|250px|The [[Wayuu]] represent the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia.<ref name = "EPM"> {{cite web | author =EPM | url = http://www.eeppm.com/epmcom/contenido/acercade/infraestructura/generacion/Jepirachi/etnia.htm | title = La etnia Wayuu | work = Empresas Publicas de Medellin | date = 2005| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref>]] Before the Spanish colonization of the region that would become the country of Colombia, the territory was the home to many different [[indigenous peoples]]. Today more than fifty different indigenous ethnic groups inhabit Colombia. Most of them speak languages belonging to the [[Chibcha]]n and [[Carib]]an linguistic families. Historically there are established 567 reserves (''resguardos'') for indigenous peoples and they are inhabitated by more than 800,000 people; the 1991 constitution established their native languages as official in their territories, most of them have bilingual education (Native and Spanish). Some of the largest indigenous groups are the [[Wayuu]],<ref name = "EPM"> {{cite web | author =EPM | url = http://www.eeppm.com/epmcom/contenido/acercade/infraestructura/generacion/Jepirachi/etnia.htm | title = La etnia Wayuu | work = Empresas Publicas de Medellin | date = 2005| accessdate = 2008-02-29 | language = Spanish}}</ref> the [[Arhuacos]], the [[Muisca]], the [[Kuna people]], the [[Witoto]], the [[Páez people|Páez]], the [[Tucano people|Tucano]] and the [[Guahibo people|Guahibo]]. The [[#Departments_and_municipalities|departamentos]] with the biggest Indian population are [[Cauca]], [[Guajira]] and [[Guainia]]. ===Immigrant groups=== {{main|Immigration to Colombia}} Because of its strategic location Colombia has received several immigration waves during its history. Most of these immigrants have settled in the Caribbean Coast; [[Barranquilla]] (the largest city in the Colombian Caribbean Coast) and other Caribbean cities have the largest population of Arab Lebanese, Jewish, Italian, German, French, Portuguese and Gypsy descendants. There are also important communities of German and Chinese descendants in the Caribbean Coast. ===Ethnic groups=== The census data in Colombia does not take into account ethnicity, so percentages are basically estimates from other sources and can vary from one another. Statistics reveal that Colombians are predominantly Roman Catholic and overwhelmingly speakers of Spanish, and that a majority of them are the result of the a mixture of Europeans, Africans, Amerindians. 58% of the population is mestizo, or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, while 20% is of European ancestry. Another 14% is mulatto, or of mixed black African and European ancestry, while 4% is of black African ancestry and 3% are zambos, of mixed black African and Amerindian ancestry. Pure indigenous Amerindians comprise 1 percent of the population.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intute&nbsp;— World Guide&nbsp;— Colombia |url=http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/worldguide/html/856_people.html |accessdate= 2007-03-08}}</ref> There are 101 languages listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database, of which 80 are spoken today as living languages. There are about 500,000 speakers of indigenous languages in Colombia today.<ref name="ethnologue">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Colombia The Languages of Colombia]</ref> More than two-thirds of all Colombians live in urban areas—a figure significantly higher than the world average. The literacy rate (94 percent) in Colombia is also well above the world average, and the rate of population growth is slightly higher than the world average. Also, a large proportion of Colombians are young, largely because of recent decreases in the infant mortality rate. While 33 percent of the people are 14 years of age or younger, just 4 percent are aged 65 or older. ===Education=== {{main|Education in Colombia}} [[Image:DSC01982.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Che Square (or Santander Square), campus of the [[National University of Colombia]] in [[Bogotá]]. The National University is the largest state owned university in Colombia.]] Over 94% of the entire population over 15 years of age can read and write, and this number has continued to increase throughout the years. Sixty percent of students complete primary schooling (5 years) and move onto secondary schooling (6 years). Most primary schools are private. Approximately 80 percent of Colombian children enter school, but they usually join a preschool academy until age 6 and then go to school. The school year extends from February to November in the capital city while in many other cities it extends from August to June. [[Primary education]] is free and [[compulsory education|compulsory]] for nine years for children between 6 and 12 years of age. The net primary enrollment (percentage of relevant age-group) in 2001 was 86.7 percent. The completion rate (percentage of age-group) for children attending elementary school (primaria) in 2001 totaled 89.5 percent. In many rural areas, teachers are poorly qualified, and only five years of primary school are offered. [[Secondary education]] (educación media) begins at age 11 and lasts up to six years, without any opportunity for [[vocational training]]. Secondary-school graduates are awarded the diploma (high-school diploma). Net secondary enrollment in 2001 was 53.5 percent. School life expectancy in 2001 was 11.1 years. Total public spending as a percentage of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2001 was 4.4 percent—one of the highest rates in Latin America—as compared with 2.5 percent at the end of the 1980s. Government expenditures on education in 1999 totaled 19.7 percent of total government spending. The ratio of pupils to teachers in 2001 in primary school was 26:1 and in secondary school, 19:2. Colombia has 24 public universities. A total of 92.5 percent of the population is literate (male: 92.4 percent; female: 92.6 percent), according to a 2003 estimate. [[Literacy]] is at 93 percent in urban areas, but only 67 percent in rural areas. People in Colombia are educated in Spanish (see also [[Colombian Spanish]]). The second most spoken language is English. ===Religion=== {{main|Religion in Colombia}} {{see also|Status of religious freedom in Colombia}} [[Image:Catedral de sal&nbsp;— Adan.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá|Salt Cathedral]] in the town of [[Zipaquirá]], [[Cundinamarca]].]] The [[National Administrative Department of Statistics]] (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are hard to obtain. Based on various studies, more than 95% of the population adheres to [[Christianity]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=78 |title=Religious Intelligence&nbsp;— Country Profile: Colombia (Republic of Colombia) |accessdate=2007-10-03}}</ref> in which a huge segment of the population, between 81% and 90%, practices [[Roman Catholicism]]. About 1% of Colombians practice [[animism|indigenous religions]]. Under 1% practice [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism]]. Despite strong numbers of adherents, around 60% of respondents to a poll by ''El Tiempo'' report that they do not practice their faith actively.<ref name="State">[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51632.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2005], by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, [[November 8]], [[2005]].</ref> The Colombian constitution guarantees religious freedom, but also states that the State "is not atheist or agnostic, nor indifferent to Colombians' religious sentiment." Religious groups are readily able to obtain recognition as organized associations, but some smaller ones face difficulty in obtaining recognition as religious entities, which is required to offer chaplaincy services in public facilities.<ref name="State"/> ==Culture== {{main|Culture of Colombia}} [[Image:Fiesta Palenque.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiesta in Palenque. [[Afro-Colombian]] tradition from [[San Basilio de Palenque]], a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] since 2005.]] Colombian culture lies at the crossroads of [[Latin American culture|Latin America]], and is distinguished by having a very [[multicultural]] society. European, African, Native American, [[American culture|American]], Middle Eastern, and other Latin American cultural influences such as [[Mexican culture|Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]] are all felt in Colombia's modern culture. Due to Colombia's [[geography]] and years of social and political instability, Colombian culture has been heavily [[fragmented]] into five major cultural regions which also correspond to Colombian [[Natural Regions of Colombia|natural regions]]. [[Rural-urban migration|Urban migration]], [[industrialization]], [[globalization]], and other political, social and economic issues have altered the Colombian lifestyle throughout the years. Inherited from [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonial times]], Colombia maintains its large base of [[Roman Catholic]] traditions which largely influence and unite its multicultural society. The mixing of various different ethnic traditions is reflected in Colombia's [[music of Colombia|music]] and dance. The most well-known genres of music in Colombia are [[cumbia]] and [[vallenato]], the latter being strongly influenced by global [[pop culture]]. [[Image:Clintonandvallenatokids.png|thumb|left|250px|US President [[Bill Clinton]] and daughter [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea]] during a visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where they were greeted by [[the Children of Vallenato]].]] [[Image:Feria de las Flores by Luis Perez.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Festival of the Flowers]] in [[Medellín]], [[Antioquia Department|Department of Antioquia]].]] Colombia has multiple [[Festivals in Colombia|celebrations and festivals]] throughout the year, with a majority stemming from Catholic religious traditions. Prominent examples of festivals include the [[Ibero-American Theater Festival]], [[Barranquilla's Carnival]], [[Carnival of Blacks and Whites]], Colombian independence day, [[Holy Week]], and [[Christmas]]. A powerful cultural medium in Colombia is [[Television in Colombia|television]]; the [[telenovela]] [[Betty La Fea]] has gained international success through localized versions in the United States, Mexico, and Croatia. Television has also played a role in the development of the [[Cinema of Colombia|local film industry]]. As in many Latin American countries, Colombians have developed a passion for [[Football (soccer)]]. The [[Colombian national football team]] is seen as a symbol of unity and national pride. Colombia has "exported" many famous players, such as [[Freddy Rincon]], [[Carlos Valderrama (footballer)|Carlos Valderrama]], [[Ruben Dario Bustos]], and [[Faustino Asprilla]]. Other Colombian athletes have achieved success in other sports, such as [[NASCAR|NASCAR's]] [[Juan Pablo Montoya]], [[Major League Baseball|Major League Baseball's]] [[Edgar Rentería]] and [[Orlando Cabrera]], and the [[PGA Tour|PGA Tour's]] [[Camilo Villegas]]. Other famous Colombians include the [[Nobel Prize]] winning author [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez]], the artist [[Fernando Botero]], the musicians [[Shakira]], [[Juanes]], and [[Carlos Vives]], and the actors Rafael Novoa, [[Catalina Sandino Moreno]], and [[Sofia Vergara]]. The [[Cuisine of Colombia]] developed mainly from the food traditions of European countries. [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]], [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] and [[French cuisine|French]] culinary influences can be seen in Colombian cooking. [[American cuisine]], the cuisine of neighboring [[Latin American cuisine|Latin American countries]], Mexico and the Caribbean, as well as the cooking traditions of the Native Americans have all influenced Colombian cuisine. [[National symbols of Colombia|National symbols]] have arisen from Colombia's multiculturalism and are objects or themes that are representative of Colombia, the Colombian people, and their shared culture. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the [[Ministry of Culture (Colombia)|Ministry of Culture]]. ==See also== {{Colombia topics|state=uncollapsed}} ==References== ===Internet=== {{reflist|2}} ===Further reading=== * Academia Colombiana de Historia (1986), ''Historia extensa de Colombia'' (41 volúmenes). Bogotá: Ediciones Lerner, 1965-1986. ISBN 9589501338 (Obra completa) * Barrios, Luis (1984), ''Historia de Colombia''. Quinta edición, Bogotá: Editorial Cultural * Bedoya F., Víctor A. (1944), ''Historia de Colombia: independencia y república con bases fundamentales en la colonia''. Colección La Salle, Bogotá: Librería Stella * Bushnell, David (1996), ''Colombia una nación a pesar de sí misma: de los tiempos precolombinos a nuestros días''. Bogotá: Planeta Editores. ISBN 9586144879 * Caballero Argaez, Carlos (1987), ''50 años de economía: de la crisis del treinta a la del ochenta''. Segunda edición, Colección Jorge Ortega Torres, Bogotá: Editorial Presencia, Asociación Bancaria de Colombia. ISBN 9589040039 * Cadavid Misas, Roberto (2004), ''Cursillo de historia de Colombia: de la conquista a la independencia''. Bogotá: Intermedio Editores. ISBN 9587091345 * Calderón Schrader, Camilo; Gil, Antonio; Torras, Daniel (2001), ''Enciclopedia de Colombia'' (4 volúmenes). Barcelona: céano Grupo Editorial, 2001. ISBN 8449419476 (Obra completa) * Calderón Schrader, Camilo (1993), ''Gran enciclopedia de Colombia'' (11 volúmenes). Bogotá: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 9582802944 (obra completa) * Cavelier Gaviria, Germán (2003), ''Centenario de Panamá: una historia de la separación de Colombia en 1903''. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia. ISBN 9586167186 * Forero, Manuel José (1946), ''Historia analítica de Colombia desde los orígenes de la independencia nacional''. Segunda edición, Bogotá: Librería Voluntad. * Gómez Hoyos, Rafael (1992), ''La independencia de Colombia''. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, Colecciones Mapfre 1492. ISBN 8471005964 * Granados, Rafael María (1978), ''Historia general de Colombia: prehistoria, conquista, colonia, independencia y Repúbica''. Octava edición, Bogotá: Imprenta Departamental Antonio Nariño. * Hernández de Alba, Guillermo (2004), ''Como nació la República de Colombia''. Colección Bolsilibros. Bogotá: Academia Colombiana de Historia. ISBN 9588040353 * Hernández Becerra, Augusto (2001), ''Ordenamiento y desarreglo territorial en Colombia''. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, ISBN 9586165558 * Hernández Rodríguez, Guillermo (1949), ''De los chibchas a la colonia y a la república''. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Sección de Extensión Cultural. * Jaramillo Uribe, Jaime; Tirado Mejía, Álvaro; Calderón Schrader, Camilo (2000), ''Nueva historia de Colombia'' (12 volúmenes). Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial. ISBN 9586142515 (Obra completa) * Ocampo López, Javier (1999), ''El proceso ideológico de la emancipación en Colombia''. Colección La Línea de Horizonte, Bogotá: Editorial Planeta. ISBN 9586147924 * Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo (1998), ''Colombia indígena''. Medellín: Hola Colina. ISBN 9586382761 * Restrepo, José Manuel (1974), ''Historia de la revolución de la República de Colombia''. Medellín: Editorial Bedout. * Rivadeneira Vargas, Antonio José (2002), ''Historia constitucional de Colombia 1510-2000''. Tunja: Editorial Bolivariana Internacional. Tercera edición. * Tovar Pinzón, Hermes (1975), ''El movimiento campesino en Colombia durante los siglos XIX y XX''. Bogotá : Ediciones Libres, segunda edición. * United States-Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement (TLC) [http://www.hqccg.com/index.php?name=Content&pid=139 Colombia] * Trujillo Muñoz Augusto (2001), ''Descentralización, regionalización y autonomía local''. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. * Vidal Perdomo Jaime (2001), ''La Región en la Organización Territorial del Estado''. Bogotá: Universidad del Rosario. *[[Central Intelligence Agency]]: ''[[The World Factbook]]''. 2005. ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Colombia}} '''Government''' * {{es icon}} [http://www.gobiernoenlinea.gov.co/ Portal del Estado] - Colombia Online Government web site * {{es icon}} [http://www.presidencia.gov.co/ Presidencia de la República de Colombia] - Official Presidential web site * {{es icon}} [http://www.mincomercio.gov.co/ Ministerio de Comercio, Industria y Turismo] - Commerce, Industry and Tourism Boreau * [http://www.sinic.gov.co/SINIC/ColombiaCultural/PaginaColCultural_en.aspx?AREID=3&SECID=71&SERID=8 National System of Cultural Information] * {{es icon}} [http://www.unicef.org.co/ UNICEF en Colombia] * [http://www.banrep.gov.co/index_eng.html Banco de la República] - Central Bank * {{es icon}} [http://www.dane.gov.co/ Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadistica] - National Statistics Administrative Dept. * {{es icon}} [http://www.invias.gov.co/invias/index.php Instituto Nacional de Vías] - Transport and Road Agency * {{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gov.co Senate of Colombia] * {{es icon}} [http://www.camara.gov.co Colombia's House of representatives] * {{es icon}} [http://www.ramajudicial.gov.co Colombia's Judicial branch] * {{es icon}} [http://www.policia.gov.co/ Policia Nacional] - Police * [http://www.armada.mil.co/index.php?idcategoria=275032 Armada Nacional de Colombia] - Navy * [http://www.ejercito.mil.co/index.php?idcategoria=113867 Ejército Nacional de Colombia] - Army * {{es icon}} [http://www.das.gov.co/ Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad] - Homeland Security * {{es icon}} [http://www.igac.gov.co - Agustin Codazzi Geographic Institute - ''Maps of Colombia''] '''Other''' * {{wikitravel}} * [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Colombia Encyclopaedia Britannica ''Colombia''] Country Page * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html CIA World Factbook - ''Colombia''] * [http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RS22419.pdf US Colombia Free Trade Promotion Agreement] - [[Congressional Research Service]] * [http://www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/press_releases/archive2006/press_release.2006-04-05.0288431709 US-Colombia Free Trade Deal Costly for Poor People] - [[Oxfam]] * [http://www.freetrade.org/pubs/FTBs/FTB-032.html A U.S.-Colombia Free Trade Agreement: Strengthening Democracy and Progress in Latin America] - [[Cato Institute]] {{Template group |title = Geographic locale |list = {{Departments of Colombia}} {{Countries of South America}} }} {{Template group |title = International membership |list = {{Latin Union}} {{Union of South American Nations (Unasur\Unasul)}} {{Andean Community of Nations}} {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} {{Organization of American States (OAS)}} }} [[Category:Colombia| ]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]] {{Link FA|eo}} [[af:Kolombië]] [[als:Kolumbien]] [[ar:كولومبيا]] [[an:Colombia]] [[frp:Colombie]] [[ast:Colombia]] [[gn:Kolómbia]] [[ay:Kuluwya]] [[az:Kolumbiya]] [[bn:কলম্বিয়া]] [[zh-min-nan:Colombia]] [[be:Калумбія]] [[be-x-old:Калюмбія]] [[bo:ཁོ་ལོམ་བི་ཡ]] [[bs:Kolumbija]] [[br:Kolombia]] [[bg:Колумбия]] [[ca:Colòmbia]] [[ceb:Colombia]] [[cs:Kolumbie]] [[cy:Colombia]] [[da:Colombia]] [[de:Kolumbien]] [[dsb:Kolumbiska]] [[et:Colombia]] [[el:Κολομβία]] [[es:Colombia]] [[eo:Kolombio]] [[eu:Kolonbia]] [[fa:کلمبیا]] [[fr:Colombie]] [[fy:Kolombia]] [[ga:An Cholóim]] [[gv:Yn Cholombey]] [[gd:Coloimbia]] [[gl:Colombia]] [[hak:Kô-lùn-pí-â]] [[ko:콜롬비아]] [[hy:Կոլումբիա]] [[hr:Kolumbija]] [[io:Kolumbia]] [[ilo:Colombia]] [[bpy:কলম্বিয়া]] [[id:Kolombia]] [[ia:Colombia]] [[ie:Columbia]] [[os:Колумби]] [[is:Kólumbía]] [[it:Colombia]] [[he:קולומביה]] [[jv:Kolombia]] [[pam:Colombia]] [[kn:ಕೊಲೊಂಬಿಯ]] [[ka:კოლუმბია]] [[kk:Көлөмбия]] [[kw:Kolombi]] [[sw:Kolombia]] [[ht:Kolonbi]] [[lad:Kolombia]] [[la:Columbia]] [[lv:Kolumbija]] [[lt:Kolumbija]] [[lij:Colombia]] [[li:Colombia]] [[hu:Kolumbia]] [[mk:Колумбија]] [[ml:കൊളംബിയ]] [[ms:Colombia]] [[nah:Colontlān]] [[na:Colombia]] [[nl:Colombia]] [[ne:कोलोम्बिया]] [[new:कोलम्बिया]] [[ja:コロンビア]] [[no:Colombia]] [[nn:Colombia]] [[nov:Kolombia]] [[oc:Colómbia]] [[om:Colombia]] [[uz:Kolombiya]] [[ps:کولمبيا]] [[km:កូឡុំប៊ី]] [[pms:Colombia]] [[nds:Kolumbien]] [[pl:Kolumbia]] [[pt:Colômbia]] [[crh:Kolombiya]] [[ro:Columbia]] [[rmy:Kolombiya]] [[rm:Columbia]] [[qu:Kulumbya]] [[ru:Колумбия]] [[se:Kolombia]] [[sa:कोलोम्बिया]] [[sq:Kolumbia]] [[scn:Colombia]] [[simple:Colombia]] [[sk:Kolumbia]] [[sl:Kolumbija]] [[sr:Колумбија]] [[sh:Kolumbija]] [[fi:Kolumbia]] [[szl:Kolůmbja]] [[sv:Colombia]] [[tl:Colombia]] [[ta:கொலொம்பியா]] [[tet:Kolómbia]] [[th:ประเทศโคลอมเบีย]] [[vi:Colombia]] [[tg:Кулумбия]] [[tr:Kolombiya]] [[uk:Колумбія]] [[ur:کولمبیا]] [[vec:Cołonbia]] [[vo:Kolumbän]] [[wo:Koloombi]] [[wuu:高隆皮亚]] [[yi:קאלאמביע]] [[yo:Kòlómbìà]] [[cbk-zam:Colombia]] [[diq:Kolombiya]] [[bat-smg:Kolumbėjė]] [[zh:哥伦比亚共和国]]