Colonialism 7299 226180474 2008-07-17T05:11:41Z SJL 1262413 Quick-adding category "Concepts (nationalism studies)" (using [[WP:HOTCAT|HotCat]]) {{Cleanup|date=October 2007}} {{Refimprove|date=May 2007}} {{otheruses4|territorial expansion|the architectural style|American colonial architecture}} :''See [[colony]] and [[colonization]] for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism. [[Image:Musee-de-lArmee-IMG 0976.jpg|thumb|The [[Pith helmet]] (in this case, of the [[Second French Empire]]) is an iconic representation of colonialism.]] '''Colonialism''' is the extension of a nation's [[sovereignty]] over [[Territory (country subdivision)|territory]] beyond its borders by the establishment of either [[settler]] [[colony|colonies]] or [[Public administration|administrative]] [[Dependent territory|dependencies]] in which [[Indigenous people|indigenous]] [[populations]] are [[direct rule|directly ruled]] or [[Population transfers|displaced]]. Colonizing nations generally dominate the [[natural resources|resources]], [[Manual labour|labor]], and [[markets]] of the [[List of dominant sovereign states and their servient territories|colonial territory]], and may also impose socio-cultural, religious and linguistic structures on the indigenous population (see also [[cultural imperialism]]). It is essentially a system of direct political, economic and cultural intervention and hegemony by a powerful country in a weaker one. Though the word ''colonialism'' is often used interchangeably with ''[[imperialism]]'', the latter is sometimes used more broadly as it covers control exercised informally (via influence) as well as formal military control or economic leverage. The term colonialism may also be used to refer to an ideology or a set of beliefs used to legitimize or promote this system. Colonialism was often based on the [[ethnocentrism|ethnocentric]] belief that the morals and values of the colonizer were superior to those of the colonized; some observers link such beliefs to [[racism]] and [[Scientific racism|pseudo-scientific]] theories dating from the 18th to the 19th centuries. In the [[western world]], this led to a form of proto-[[social Darwinism]] that placed [[white people]] at the top of the [[Animal|animal kingdom]], "naturally" in charge of dominating non-[[Europe]]an aboriginal populations. == Types of colonies == [[Image:Age-of-caliphs.png|thumb|200px|The expansion of the [[Arab Empire]] under the [[Umayyads]].]] [[Image:Mongol Empire History.jpg|right|thumb|left|200px|The [[Mongol Empire]] and its successor [[Khanate]]s.]] [[Image:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png|thumb|200px|[[List of Ottoman Empire dominated territories|Conquests]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]].]] Several types of colonies may be distinguished, reflecting different colonial objectives. '''[[Settler]] [[colonies]]''' refer to a variety of ancient and more recent examples whereby ethnically distinct groups settle in areas other than their original settlement that are either adjacent or across land or sea. From about 750 BC the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] began 250 years of expansion, settling [[Colonies in antiquity|colonies]] in all directions. Other examples range from large empire like the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Arab Empire]], the [[Mongol Empire]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] or small movements like ancient [[Scottish people|Scots]] moving from [[Ireland|Hibernia]] to [[Scotland|Caledonia]] and Magyars into [[Pannonia]] (modern-day [[Hungary]]). [[Turkic peoples]] spread across most of [[Central Asia]] into [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]] between the 6th and 11th centuries. Recent research suggests that [[Madagascar]] was uninhabited until [[Malay World|Malay]] seafarers from [[Indonesia]] arrived during the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. Subsequent migrations from both the Pacific and Africa further consolidated this original mixture, and [[Malagasy people]] emerged.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-359466/article-9050264 Malagasy languages], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Before the expansion of the [[Bantu]] languages and their speakers, the southern half of Africa is believed to have been populated by [[Pygmies]] and [[Khoisan]] speaking people, today occupying the arid regions around the [[Kalahari]] and the forest of Central Africa. By about 1000 AD Bantu migration had reached modern day [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]]. The [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Maqil|Banu Ma'qil]] were a collection of [[Arab]] [[Bedouin]] tribes from the [[Arabian peninsula]] who migrated westwards via [[Egypt]] between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their migration strongly contributed to the [[arabization]] and [[islamization]] of the western [[Maghreb]], which was until then dominated by [[Berber people|Berber]] tribes. [[Ostsiedlung]] was the medieval eastward migration and settlement of [[Ethnic Germans|Germans]]. The 13th century was the time of the great [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] migrations across [[Eurasia]]. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] expanded southward in a process known as [[History of Vietnam#Ming occupation and the rise of the Le dynasty|nam tiến]] (southward expansion).<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/11.htm The Le Dynasty and Southward Expansion]</ref> More recent examples of internal colonialism are the movement of ethnic [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] into [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang|Eastern Turkestan]]<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4297070.stm China given warning on Xinjiang]</ref>, ethnic [[Javanese people|Javanese]] into [[Western New Guinea]] and [[Kalimantan]]<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/stories/s253467.htm Ethnic violence continues to rage in Central Kalimantan]</ref> (see [[Transmigration program]]), [[Demography of Brazil|Brazilians]] into [[Amazonia]]<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0827-atbc.html Scientists demand Brazil suspend Amazon colonization project]</ref>, Israelis into the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza]], ethnic [[Arabs]] into Iraqi [[Kurdistan]], and ethnic [[Russians]] into [[Siberia]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>Robert Greenall, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia], [[BBC News]], [[23 November]] [[2005]].</ref> The local populations or tribes, such as the [[aboriginal people]] in Canada, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Japan<ref>[http://www.hurights.or.jp/asia-pacific/no_04/06reporton.htm Report on a New Policy for the Ainu: A Critique]</ref>, Siberia and the United States, were usually far overwhelmed numerically by the settlers. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, [[pandemic|epidemic]] [[disease]] was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/smallpox_01.shtml Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge]</ref><ref>[http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/orlow-e.html Silent Killers of the New World]</ref> Forcible [[population transfers]], usually to areas of poorer-quality land or resources often led to the permanent detriment of indigenous peoples. Whilst commonplace in the past, in today's language colonialism and colonization are seen as state-sponsored [[illegal immigration]] that was [[crime|criminal]] in nature and intent, achieved essentially with the use of violence and [[terrorism|terror]].{{Fact|date=February 2008}} In some cases, for example the [[Vandal]]s, [[Huguenot]]s, [[Boer]]s, [[Matabele]]s and [[Sioux]], the colonizers were fleeing more powerful enemies, as part of a chain reaction of colonization. Settler colonies may be contrasted with '''dependencies''', where the colonizers did not arrive as part of a mass emigration, but rather as administrators over existing sizable native populations. Examples in this category include the [[Persian Empire]], the [[British Raj]], [[Egypt]] after the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-sixth dynasty]], the [[Dutch East Indies]], and the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese colonial empire]]. In some cases large-scale colonial settlement was attempted in substantially pre-populated areas and the result was either an ethnically mixed population (such as the [[mestizo]]s of the [[Americas]]), or racially divided, such as in [[French Algeria]] or [[Southern Rhodesia]]. With '''[[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantation]]''' colonies such as [[Barbados]], [[Saint-Domingue]] and [[Jamaica]], the white colonizers [[Atlantic slave trade|imported black slaves]] who rapidly began to outnumber their owners, leading to minority rule, similar to a dependency. '''[[Trading posts]]''', such as [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[Malacca]], [[Deshima]], [[Portuguese India]] and [[Singapore]] constitute a fifth category, where the primary purpose of the colony was to engage in trade rather than as a staging post for further colonization of the hinterland. == History of colonialism == {{main|Imperialism|History of colonialism|Chronology of colonialism}} [[Image:Colonisation 1800.png|thumb|300px|World map of colonialism in 1800.]] The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the [[Hittites]], the [[Incas]] and the [[British people|British]], although the term ''colonialism'' is normally used with reference to discontiguous European overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. Land-based empires are conventionally described by the term ''imperialism'', such as [[Age of Imperialism]] which includes Colonialism as a sub-topic, but in the main refers to conquest and domination of nearby lesser [[geographic powers]]. Examples of land-based empires include the [[Mongol Empire]], a large empire stretching from the Western [[Pacific]] to [[Eastern Europe]], the Empire of [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], the [[Persian Empire]], the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] was created across [[Mediterranean]], [[North Africa]] and into [[South-Eastern Europe]] and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world. [[Image:Imperialism2.png|thumb|300px|This map of the world in 1900 shows the large colonial empires that powerful nations established across the globe]] [[Image:Colonization 1945.png|thumb|right|300px|World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in 1945.]] After the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ''[[Reconquista]]'' period when the [[Kingdom of Portugal]] fought against the [[Muslim]] domination of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Portuguese started to expand overseas. European colonialism began in 1415, with [[Portugal]]'s conquest of the Muslim port of [[Ceuta]], Northern Africa. In the following decades Portugal braved the coast of Africa [[Economic history of Portugal#15th century|establishing trading posts, ports and fortresses]]. Colonialism was led by Portuguese and [[Spain|Spanish]] exploration of the Americas, and the coasts of [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[India]], and East Asia. The latter half of the sixteenth century witnessed the expansion of the English colonial state throughout Ireland.<ref> Ciaran Brady, The Chief Governors (Cambridge, 1994); Colm Lennon, ''Sixteenth-Century Ireland: The Incomplete Conquest''(Dublin, 1994)</ref> Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17th century that [[early Modern Britain|Britain]], [[France]] and [[the Netherlands]] successfully established overseas empires outside Europe, in direct competition with Spain and Portugal and with each other. In the 19th century the [[British Empire]] grew to become the largest empire yet seen (see [[list of largest empires]]). The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of [[decolonization]] when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective [[metropole]]s. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies, but [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] (after the union of England and [[Scotland]]), France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the Old World, particularly [[South Africa]], India and South East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. The [[German Empire]] (now [[Federal Republic of Germany|Republic]]), created by most of [[German-speaking Europe|Germany]] being united under [[Prussia]] (omitting [[Austria]], and other ethnic-German areas) also sought colonies in [[Deutsch Ost Afrika|German East Africa]]. Territories in other parts of the world were also added to the trans-oceanic, or extra-European, [[German colonial empire]]. [[Italy]] occupied [[Eritrea]], [[Somalia]] and [[Libya]]. During the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War|First]] and the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], Italy invaded Abyssinia, and in 1936 the [[Italian East Africa|Italian Empire]] was created. [[Image:colonisation2.gif|thumb|right|300px|World Colonization 1492-2008]] The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of [[New Imperialism]], when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the [[Scramble for Africa]]. During the 20th Century, the overseas colonies of the losers of [[World War I]] were distributed amongst the victors as [[Mandate (international law)|mandates]], but it was not until the end of [[World War II]] that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. == Neocolonialism == {{POV|date=May 2008}} {{main|Neocolonialism}} Although there are few modern colonies, the decolonization efforts of the 1960s-70s resulted in numerous former colonies which remain economically subordinate to foreign powers. [[Neocolonialism]] ascribes these relationships to an intentional policy. [[Image:Promises.JPG|250px|right|thumb|1900 Campaign poster for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. "The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory but for humanity's sake.", president [[William McKinley]], July 12, 1900. On the left hand, we see how the situation allegedly was in 1896, before [[United States presidential election, 1896|Mc Kinley's victory during the elections]]: "[[Democratic Party (United States)|Gone Democratic]]: A run on the bank, [[History of Cuba|Spanish rule in Cuba]]". On the right hand, we see how the situation allegedly is in 1900, after four years of McKinley's rule: "Gone Republican: a run to the bank, American rule in Cuba" (the [[Spanish-American War]] took place in 1898). The [[History of the United States|USA]] is becoming, as other European powers, an imperialist power. As did [[French Revolution|France]] before with its [[Moral universalism|universalist]] doctrine, it [[American exceptionalism|claims that it acts for "Humanity"]].{{POV-statement|date=December 2007}} ]] ===U.S. foreign intervention=== The U.S. has long been a colonizer; establishing the Panama Canal Zone and its intervention in Vietnam during World War II are just two examples. The United States intervened in various countries, by issuing an [[United States embargo against Cuba|embargo against Cuba]] after the 1959 [[Cuban Revolution]]—which started on [[February 7]]; 1962—and supporting various [[covert operations]] (the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]; [[the Cuban Project]], among other examples. Theorists of neo-colonialism are of the opinion that the US preferred supporting [[dictatorships]] in Third World countries rather than having democracies that always presented the risk of having the people choose being aligned with the [[Communist bloc]] rather than the so-called "[[Free World]]". For example, in Chile (see ''[[United States intervention in Chile]]'') the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] covertly spent three million dollars in an effort to influence the outcome of the 1964 Chilean presidential election;<ref name=CBS-2000>[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/09/11/world/main232452.shtml CIA Reveals Covert Acts In Chile], CBS News, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> supported the attempted October 1970 kidnapping of General [[Rene Schneider]] (head of the Chilean army), part of a plot to prevent the congressional confirmation of socialist [[Salvador Allende]] as president (in the event, Schneider was shot and killed; Allende's election was confirmed);<ref name=CBS-2000 /> the U.S. welcomed, though probably did not bring about the [[Chilean coup of 1973]], in which Allende was overthrown and [[Augusto Pinochet]] installed<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/chile.htm The Kissinger Telcons: Kissinger Telcons on Chile], National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 123, edited by Peter Kornbluh, posted May 26, 2004. See especially [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/Box%2022,%20File%203,%20Telcon,%209-16-73%2011,50%20Mr.%20Kissinger-The%20Pres%202.pdf TELCON: September 16, 1973, 11:50 a.m. Kissinger Talking to Nixon]: '''Nixon''': Well we didn't – as you know – our hand doesn't show on this one though. '''Kissinger''': We didn't do it. I mean we helped them. [Garbled] created the conditions as great as possible. '''Nixon''': That is right. And that is the way it is going to be played. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> and provided material support to the military regime after the coup, continuing payment to CIA contacts who were known to be involved in human rights abuses;<ref>Peter Kornbluh, [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20000919/ CIA Acknowledges Ties to Pinochet’s Repression Report to Congress Reveals U.S. Accountability in Chile], Chile Documentation Project, National Security Archive, September 19, 2000. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> and even facilitated communications for [[Operation Condor]],<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010306/ Operation Condor: Cable suggests U.S. role], National Security Archive, March 6, 2001. Accessed online November 26, 2006.</ref> a cooperative program among the intelligence agencies of several right-wing South American regimes to locate, observe and assassinate political opponents. The proponents of the idea of neo-colonialism also cite the 1983 U.S. [[invasion of Grenada]] and the 1989 [[United States invasion of Panama]], overthrowing [[Manuel Noriega]], who was characterized by the U.S. government as a [[druglord]]. In [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]], Washington supported [[Suharto]]'s authoritarian [[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]. This interference, in particular in South and Central American countries, is reminiscent of the 19th century [[Monroe doctrine]] and the [[Big stick diplomacy]] codified by U.S. president [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. [[Left-wing]] critics have spoken of an "[[American Empire]]", pushed in particular by the [[military-industrial complex]], which President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] warned against in 1961. On the other hand, some [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] have supported, without much success since World War I, [[United States non-interventionism|isolationism]]. Defenders of U.S. policy have asserted that intervention was sometimes necessary to prevent [[Communist]] or Soviet-aligned governments from taking power during the Cold War. Most of the actions described in this section constitute imperialism rather than colonialism, which usually involves one country settling in another country and calling it their own. U.S. imperialism has been called neocolonial because it is a new sort of colonialism: one that operates not by invading, conquering, and settling a foreign country with pilgrims, but by exercising economic control through international monetary institutions, via military threat, missionary interference, strategic investment, so-called "Free trade areas," and by supporting the violent overthrow of leftist governments (even those that have been democratically elected, as detailed above).{{Fact|date=February 2008}} ===French foreign intervention=== France wasn't inactive either: it supported dictatorships in the former colonies in Africa, leading to the expression ''[[Françafrique]]'', coined by [[François-Xavier Verschave]], a member of the anti-neocolonialist [[Survie NGO]], which has criticized the way [[development aid]] was given to post-colonial countries, claiming it only supported neo-colonialism, interior corruption and arms-trade. The [[Third World debt]], including [[odious debt]], where the interest on the external debt exceeds the amount that the country produces, had been considered by some a method of oppression or control by first world countries; a form of [[debt bondage]] on the scale of nations. ==Soviet Imperialism== {{main|Soviet occupations}} The USSR, which had grafted onto the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] several countries that had had short-lived independence ([[Ukraine]], [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], and the lands of [[Soviet Central Asia|Central Asia]]), never reconciled itself to having lost [[Ukraine|West Ukraine]], [[West Belarus]], [[Bessarabia]], and the three [[Baltic states]] (territories which formerly belonged to the [[Russian Empire]]) in the course of 1919-21. Thus they aimed to annex these territories as well as to obtain a buffer zone from [[Finland]] in 1939-40 (''see [[Soviet-Finnish War]]''). After the [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)|Soviet invasion of Poland]] following the corresponding [[invasion of Poland (1939)|German invasion]] that marked the start of [[World War II]] in 1939, the [[Soviet Union]] annexed eastern parts (so-called "''[[Kresy]]''") of the [[Second Polish Republic]] (''see [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]''). In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Bessarabia]] and [[Bukovina]] (''see [[Occupation of Baltic states]]'').<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/06/AR2005050601338.html Memories of Soviet Repression Still Vivid in Baltics], [[Washington Post]], [[7 May]], [[2005]]</ref> The Soviet Union emerged from [[World War II]] as one of the two major world powers, a position maintained for four decades through its hegemony in [[Eastern Europe]]. Claiming to be Leninist, the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] proclaimed itself foremost [[Anti-imperialism|enemy of imperialism]], supporting armed, national independence or anti-Western movements in the [[Third World]]<ref>[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-12696.html Soviet Union - Central and South America]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6171927.stm Profile: Mengistu Haile Mariam], [[BBC]]</ref> while simultaneously dominating Eastern Europe and [[Soviet Central Asia|Central Asia]]. Marxists and Maoists to the left of Trotsky, such as [[Tony Cliff]], claim the Soviet Union was imperialist. Maoists claim it occurred after [[Kruschev|Khrushchev's]] ascension in 1956; Cliff says it occurred under [[Stalin]] in the 1940s.<ref>[http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/encyclopedia/article_show/imperialism/m0096887.html Soviet imperialism]</ref> During the [[Cold War]], the term ''[[Eastern Bloc]]'' (or ''Soviet Bloc'') was used to refer to the [[Soviet Union]] and countries it controlled in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]]). In the aftermath of [[World War II]], the Soviet Union used its military power to influence political life in all countries in which it came into occupation to ensure compliant people's republics that would subordinate their political structures, foreign policy, law, academia, military activity, and economics with the dictates of Soviet leadership while maintaining a semblance of independence (see [[Puppet state#Puppet states of the Soviet Union after 1939|Puppet states of the Soviet Union after 1939]]). Countries in Eastern Bloc were turned communists by the use of force and physical elimination of all political opposition to Soviet rule over them. Afterwards nations within the Eastern Bloc were held in the Soviet [[sphere of influence]] through military force. [[Hungary]] was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1956 after it had [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|overthrown its pro-Soviet government]] and replaced it with one that sought a more democratic communist path independent of Moscow;<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/ The 1956 Hungarian Revolution]</ref> when Polish communist leaders tried to elect [[Władysław Gomułka]] as First Secretary they were issued an ultimatum by Soviet military that occupied [[Poland]] ordering them to withdraw election of Gomulka for the First Secretary or be "crushed by Soviet tanks".<ref>[http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/longhist6.html The Historical Setting: The Polish People's Republic]</ref> [[Czechoslovakia]] was invaded in 1968 after a period of liberalization known as the [[Prague Spring]].<ref>[http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history14.html Prague Spring]</ref> The latter invasion was codified in formal Soviet policy as the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]].<ref>[http://www.radio.cz/en/article/44313 The Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia and the crushing of the Prague Spring]</ref> In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded [[Afghanistan]] to ensure that a pro-Soviet regime would be in power in the country (''see [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]'').<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-AfghanWar.html Afghanistan War], [[Columbia Encyclopedia]]</ref> == Post-colonialism == {{main|Post-colonialism|Postcolonial literature}} Post-colonialism (aka post-colonial theory) refers to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, postcolonial literature may be considered a branch of [[Postmodern literature]] concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take [[Edward Said]]'s book ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'' (1978) to be the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as [[Aimé Césaire]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] made similar claims decades before Said). Edward Said analyzed the works of [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]] and [[Lautréamont]], exploring how they were both influenced by and helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Post-colonial fictional writers interact with the traditional colonial [[discourse]], but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]]'s ''[[Subaltern (post-colonialism)|Can the Subaltern Speak?]]'' (1998) gave its name to the [[Subaltern Studies]]. In ''A Critique of Postcolonial Reason'' (1999), Spivak explored how major works of European [[metaphysics]] (e.g., [[Kant]], [[Hegel]]) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human [[subject (philosophy)|subjects]]. Hegel's ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (1807) is famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, in considering the [[Western civilization]] as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also allowed some traces of [[racialism]] to enter his work. [[Image:reynolds.clive.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|"[[Robert Clive]] and his family with an Indian maid", painted by [[Joshua Reynolds]], 1765.]] == Impact of colonialism and colonisation == {{main|Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonisation}} Debate about the perceived negative and positive aspects (spread of virulent [[Pandemic|diseases]], unequal social relations, exploitation, [[enslavement]], [[infrastructure]]s, [[History of medicine#Modern medicine|medical advances]], new institutions,technological advancements etc.) of colonialism has occurred for centuries, amongst both colonizer and colonized, and continues to the present day.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1713275,00.html Come Back, Colonialism, All is Forgiven]</ref> The questions of [[miscegenation]]; the alleged ties between colonial enterprises, [[genocides]] &mdash; see the [[Herero Genocide]] &mdash; and the [[Holocaust]]; and the questions of the nature of imperialism, [[dependency theory]] and [[neocolonialism]] (in particular the Third World debt) continue to retain their actuality. ==See also== {{col-begin}}{{col-3}} *[[Colony]] *[[Colonization]] *[[Colonies in antiquity]] *[[Cold War]] *[[Anti-imperialism|Anticolonialism]] *[[Settler colonialism]] *[[Chartered companies]] *[[Empire]] *[[European colonization of the Americas]] *[[Global Empire]] *[[Hellenistic period]] *[[Imperialism]] *[[Protectorate]] *[[Concession (territory)]] *[[Colonial wars]] *[[Postcolonialism]] {{col-break}} *[[German eastward expansion]] *[[Plantations of Ireland]] *[[Muslim conquests]] *[[Mongol invasions]] *[[Ottoman wars in Europe]] *[[Turkic migration]] *[[Transmigration program]] *[[Sino-African relations]] *[[Soviet Empire]] *[[American Empire]] *[[Arab Empire]] *[[Austria-Hungary]] *[[Belgian colonial empire]] *[[British Empire]] *[[History of China|Chinese Empire]] *[[Danish overseas colonies|Danish colonial empire]] *[[Dutch Empire]] {{col-break}} *[[French colonial empire]] *[[German colonial empire]] *[[Inca Empire]] *[[Italian Empire]] *[[Japanese Empire]] *[[Mexican Empire]] *[[Mongol Empire]] *[[Mughal Empire]] *[[Ottoman Empire]] *[[Persian Empire]] *[[Portuguese Empire]] *[[Russian Empire]] *[[Spanish Empire]] *[[Swedish overseas colonies|Swedish empire]] *[[Timurid dynasty|Timurid empire]] *[[Historical migration]] {{col-end}} == Notes == {{reflist}} == References == *[[Hannah Arendt|Arendt, Hannah]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951) (second chapter on [[Imperialism]] examines ties between colonialism and [[totalitarianism]]) * [[Joseph Conrad|Conrad, Joseph]], ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', 1899 * [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]], ''[[The Wretched of the Earth]]'', Pref. by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001 * [[Arthur de Gobineau|Gobineau, Arthur de]], ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'', 1853-55 * [[Gustavo Gutiérrez|Gutiérrez, Gustavo]], ''A [[Theology of Liberation]]: History, Politics, Salvation'', 1971 * [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling, Rudyard]], ''[[The White Man's Burden]]'', 1899 * [[Bartolomé de las Casas|Las Casas, Bartolomé de]], ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]]'' (1542, published in 1552) * [[Olivier LeCour Grandmaison|LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier]], ''Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial'', Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2213623163 * [[Sven Lindqvist|Lindqvist, Sven]], ''Exterminate All The Brutes'', 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), ISBN 978-1-56584-359-2 * Maria Petringa, ''Brazza, A Life for Africa'' (2006), ISBN 978-1-4259-1198-0 * Jürgen Osterhammel, ''Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview'', Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997. * [[Edward Said|Said, Edward]], ''[[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]'', 1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6 == External links == * [http://lsb.scu.edu/~dklein/papers/PdfPapers/Liberalanti-imperialism.pdf Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf)] - by professor Daniel Klein * {{sep entry|colonialism|Colonialism|Margaret Kohn}} * [http://www.pinkyshow.org/archives/episodes/070307/ ''Globalization (and the metaphysics of control in a free market world)''] - an online video on globalization, colonialism, and control. {{Colonial Empires}} ... 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