Consul 6047 223874395 2008-07-06T07:55:44Z RainbowOfLight 142196 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.95.74.165|70.95.74.165]] to last version by Katalaveno (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]]) {{two other uses|the Roman rank|modern, semi-diplomatic or colonial consuls|Consul (representative)|the village|Consul, Saskatchewan}} {{refimprove|date=June 2007}} '''Consul''' (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the highest elected office of the [[Roman Republic]] and an appointive office under the [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. The title was also used in other city states, and revived in modern states, notably [[French Republic|Republican France]] before the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]ic counter-revolution. The relating adjective is '''consular''', from the Latin ''consularis'' (which has been used, substantiated, as a title in its own right). ==Ancient Rome== {{main|Roman consul}} During the time of ancient Rome as a Republic, the Consuls were the highest civil and military magistrates, serving as the [[head of government|heads of government]] for the Republic. There were two consuls, and they ruled together. However, under the era of early Rome as an Empire, the Consuls were merely a figurative representative of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme leader. ==Other uses in antiquity== ===Other city states=== While in many cities (as in Gaul) there was a double-headed chief magistracy, often another title was used, such as Duumvir or native styles such as Meddix, but in some Consul was used. ===Private sphere=== It was not uncommon for various organisations under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents (the very founding statute or contract was also called ''lex'', 'law') ==In Feudal times== In various Italian city states, the republican regimes (elsewhere or in other periods, the Bishop or a hereditary Prince or Lord was in charge) gave its [[Chief Magistrate]]s the title of consul ... Thus there have been governments lead by consuls in [[Bologna]], Novara (with one Maggiore as head of state), [[Trani]], [[Treviso]]. The same happened in some cities in France, especially in the Mediterranean south, e.g. [[Avignon]], [[Limoges]]. The city-state of [[Genoa]], unlike ancient Rome, bestowed the title of "Consul" on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. Among these were Genoese officials stationed in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authorities. This institution, with its name, was eventually emulated by other powers and eventually led to the modern meaning of "Consul" - see [[Consul (representative)]]. In England, the clerks of [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]] made a practice of using the [[Latin]] word ''consul'' rather than the more common ''comes'' when translating his title of '[[Earl]]' - though he was not, and made no pretence of being, an elected magistrate of any sort. Modern historians sometimes call him, for that reason, "Robert the Consul", though he himself and his contemporaries did not use that name. ==Modern republics== ===French republican consuls=== In [[1799]], revolutionary [[France]] enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon ''three'' officials that bore the title "consul" as chief magistracy of the republic. In reality, however, the state was de facto under personal control of the [[First Consul]], general [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], so in political terms it was more like a re-edition of Julius Caesar's and Octavian's [[triumvirate]]s. Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, but in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First ''Consul for life'' (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well), again rather like Caesar was Dictator for life (after declining the royal style). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared [[Emperor]] of the French in 1804. ===Roman republican consuls=== Since on [[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] the [[Roman Republic (18th century)|Roman Republic]] was declared, it was headed by multiple (not just two-member) consulate, which [[27 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] occupied by "Sicily" (Naples); since [[11 July]] [[1799]] - [[28 September]] [[1799]] the republic was occupied by France, [[30 September]] [[1799]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] occupied by "Sicily" (i.e. the kingdom of Naples), later one of the home-realms of the Italian kingdom. The members of the Consulates were: *[[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[20 March]] [[1798]] there were Provisional Consuls: Briganti, Carlo Luigi Costantini, Pio Camillo, duca Bonelli-Crescenzi, Gioacchino Pessuti, Antonio Bassi & Maggi, Stampa & Liborio Angelucci *[[20 March]] [[1798]] - September 1798 the first regular Consuls: Liborio Angelucci, Giacomo De Mattheis, Panazzi, Reppi & Ennio Quirino Visconti *September 1798 - [[27 November]] [[1798]] again Consuls: Brigi (1st time), Calisti (1st time), Francesco Pierelli (1st time), Giuseppe Rey (1st time) & Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (1st time) (b. 1760 - d. 18..) *After the [[29 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] Provisional Government of five (Princes Giambattista Borghese, Paolo-Maria Aldobrandini & Prince Gibrielli, Marchese Camillo Massimo & Giovanni Ricci), the [[12 December]] [[1798]] - [[24 July]] [[1799]] Consuls: Brigi (2nd time), Calisti (2nd time), Francesco Pierelli (2nd time), Giuseppe Rey (2nd time), Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (2nd time) ==Bolognese Republic== The short-lived [[Bolognese Republic]], proclaimed in [[1796]] as a [[French client republic]] in the Central Italian city of [[Bologna]], had a government consisting of nine consuls and its head of state was the ''Presidente del Magistrato'', i.e. [[Chief magistrate]], a presiding office held for four months by one of the consuls. As noted above, Bologna already had Consuls at some parts of its Medieval history. ===Paraguay=== In between series of juntas (and various other short-lived regimes), the young republic was governed by Consuls of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months): *[[12 October]] [[1813]] - [[12 February]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (1st time) *[[12 February]] [[1814]] - [[12 June]] [[1814]] Fulgencio Yegros y Franco de Torres *[[12 June]] [[1814]] - [[3 October]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time); he stayed on as [[Supreme Dictator]] [[3 October]] [[1814]] - [[20 September]] [[1840]] (from [[6 June]] [[1816]] styled Perpetual Supreme Dictator) After a few Presidents of the Provisional Junta, there were again Consuls of the Republic, [[14 March]] [[1841]] - [[13 March]] [[1844]] (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled First Consul, Second Consul): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 - d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforementioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) Thereafter all republican rulers were styled President ===Revolutionary Greece=== Among the many petty local republics that were formed during the first year of the [[Greek Revolution]], prior to the creation of a unified Provisional Government at the [[First National Assembly at Epidaurus]], were: *The Consulate of [[Argos]] (from [[26 May]] [[1821]], under the Senate of the [[Peloponnese]]) had a ''single'' head of state, styled consul, [[28 March]] [[1821]] - [[26 May]] [[1821]]: Stamatellos Antonopoulos *The Consulate of East Greece ([[Livadeia]]) (from [[15 November]] [[1821]], under the [[Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece|Areopagus of East Greece]]) was headed [[1 April]] [[1821]] - [[15 November]] [[1821]] by three Consuls: Lambros Nakos, Ioannis Logothetis & Ioannis Filon ''Note: in [[Greek language|Greek]], the term for "consul" is "ypatos", which translates as "supreme one", and hence does not necessarily imply a joint office.'' ==See also== * [[Consularis]] (Roman gubernatorial style) * [[Captain Regent]] (similar modern position in San Marino's government) * [[List of topics related to ancient Rome]] * [[Political institutions of Rome]] * Chronological listings of Roman consuls (in law always republican Magistrates): **[[List of Roman Consuls]] ==Sources and references== *[[Pauly-Wissowa]] *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen- see each present country] [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] [[Category:Heads of government]] [[Category:Heads of state]] [[Category:Military ranks of ancient Rome]] [[Category:Latin political phrases]] [[Category:Collective heads of state]] [[bs:Konzul]] [[bg:Консул]] [[ca:Cònsol romà]] [[cs:Konzul (antický Řím)]] [[da:Consul]] [[de:Consulat]] [[et:Konsul (Vana-Rooma)]] [[es:Cónsul romano]] [[eo:Konsulo (Romia historio)]] [[fr:Consul]] [[gl:Cónsul romano]] [[ko:집정관]] [[hr:Konzul]] [[it:Console (storia romana)]] [[he:קונסול (רומא העתיקה)]] [[ka:კონსული]] [[ku:Konsûl]] [[la:Consul]] [[lt:Konsulas]] [[hu:Consul]] [[nl:Consul (Rome)]] [[ja:執政官]] [[no:Romersk konsul]] [[nn:Romersk konsul]] [[pl:Konsul rzymski]] [[pt:Cônsul]] [[ro:Consul]] [[ru:Консул (Древний Рим)]] [[simple:Consul]] [[sr:Римски конзул]] [[sh:Konzul]] [[fi:Konsuli]] [[sv:Konsul (Rom)]] [[zh:罗马执政官]]