Cotton Mather
7104
223454936
2008-07-04T04:01:52Z
68.63.169.12
/* Biography */
{{otheruses4|the 17th century Puritan minister|the rock band|Cotton Mather (band)}}
{{Infobox Person
| name = Cotton Mather
| image = Cotton Mather.jpg
| caption = Cotton Mather, circa 1700
| birth_date = {{birth date|1663|2|12|mf=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date and age|1728|2|13|1663|2|12|mf=y}}
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Minister (religion)|Minister]]
| spouse =
}}
'''Cotton Mather''' ([[February 12]], [[1663]] – [[February 13]], [[1728]]). A.B. [[1678]] ([[Harvard University|Harvard College]]), A.M. [[1681]]; honorary doctorate [[1710]] ([[University of Glasgow]]), was a socially and politically influential [[History of New England|New England]] [[Puritan]] minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer. Cotton Mather was the son of influential minister [[Increase Mather]]. He is often remembered for his connection to the [[Salem witch trials]].
==Biography==
Mather was named after his grandfather, [[John Cotton (Puritan)|John Cotton]]. He attended [[Boston Latin School]], and graduated from Harvard in 1678, at only 15 years of age. After completing his post-graduate work, he joined his father as assistant Pastor of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal [[Old North Church]]). It was not until his father's death, in [[1723]], that Mather assumed full responsibilities as Pastor at the Church.
Author of more than 450 books and pamphlets, Cotton Mather's ubiquitous literary works made him one of the most influential religious leaders in America. Mather set the nation's "moral tone," and sounded the call for second and third generation Puritans, whose parents had left [[England]] for the [[New England]] colonies of [[North America]] to return to the [[theology|theological]] roots of [[Puritanism]].
The most important of these, ''[[Magnalia Christi Americana]]'' (1702), is composed of 7 distinct books, many of which depict biographical and historical narratives which later American writers such as [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Elizabeth Drew Stoddard]], and [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] would look to in describing the cultural significance of New England for later generations following the American Revolution. Mather's text thus was one of the more important documents in American history because it reflects a particular tradition of seeing and understanding the significance of place. Mather, as a Puritan thinker and social conservative, drew on the figurative language of the Bible to speak to present-day audiences. In particular, Mather's review of the American experiment sought to explain signs of his time and the types of individuals drawn to the colonies as predicting the success of the venture. From his religious training, Mather viewed the importance of texts for elaborating meaning and for bridging different moments of history (for instance, linking the biblical stories of Noah and Abraham with the arrival of eminent leaders such as [[John Eliot (missionary)|John Eliot]], [[John Winthrop]], and his own father Increase Mather).
The struggles of first, second and third-generation Puritans, both intellectual and physical, thus became elevated in the American way of thinking about its appointed place among other nations. The unease and self-deception that characterized that period of colonial history would be revisited in many forms at political and social moments of crisis (such as the Salem witch trials which coincided with frontier warfare and economic competition among Indians, French and other European settlers) and during lengthy periods of cultural definition (e.g., the American Renaissance of the late 18th and early 19th century literary, visual, and architectural movements which sought to capitalize on unique American identities).
A friend of a number of the judges charged with hearing the [[Salem witch trials]], Mather admitted the use of "[[spectral evidence]]," (compare [http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/mather/devil.htm "The Devil in New England"]) but warned that, though it might serve as evidence to begin investigations, it should not be heard in court as evidence to decide a case. Despite this, he later wrote in defense of those conducting the trials, stating:
:"If in the midst of the many Dissatisfactions among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified..." ([[Wonders of the Invisible World]]).
Highly influential due to his prolific writing, Mather was a force to be reckoned with in secular, as well as in spiritual, matters. After the fall of [[James II of England]] in [[1688]], Mather was among the leaders of a successful revolt against James's Governor of the consolidated [[Dominion of New England]], Sir [[Edmund Andros]].
[[Image:Increase Mather grave.jpg|thumb|right|The Mather tomb in [[Copp's Hill Cemetery]]]]
Mather was influential in early American science as well. In 1716, as the result of observations of corn varieties, he conducted one of the first experiments with plant [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]ization. This observation was memorialized in a letter to a friend:
:"My friend planted a row of Indian corn that was colored red and blue; the rest of the field being planted with yellow, which is the most usual color. To the windward side this red and blue so infected three or four rows as to communicate the same color unto them; and part of ye fifth and some of ye sixth. But to the leeward side, no less than seven or eight rows had ye same color communicated unto them; and some small impressions were made on those that were yet further off."
Of Mather's three wives and fifteen children, only his last wife and two children survived him. Mather was buried on [[Copp's Hill]] near [[Old North Church]].
==Smallpox inoculation==
A [[smallpox]] [[epidemic]] struck Boston in May 1721 and continued through the year.
The practice of smallpox [[inoculation]] (as opposed to the later practice of [[vaccination]]) had been known since 1706. A slave, [[Onesimus (disambiguation)|Onesimus]], had explained to Mather how he had been inoculated as a child in [[Africa]]. The practice was an ancient one, and Mather was fascinated by the idea. He encouraged [[physician]]s to try it, without success. Then, at Mather's urging, one doctor, [[Zabdiel Boylston]], tried the procedure on his only son and two slaves–one grown and one a boy. All recovered in about a week.
In a bitter controversy, the ''[[Courant|New England Courant]]'' published writers who opposed inoculation. The stated reason for this editorial stance was that the Boston populace feared that inoculation spread, rather than prevented, the disease; however, some historians, notably [[H. W. Brands]], have argued that this position was a result of editor-in-chief James Franklin's ([[Benjamin Franklin]]'s brother) [[contrarian]] positions. Boylston and Mather encountered such bitter hostility, that the selectmen of the city forbade him to repeat the experiment.
The opposition insisted that inoculation was [[poison]]ing, and they urged the authorities to [[trial|try]] Boylston for [[murder]]. So bitter was this opposition that Boylston's life was in danger; it was considered unsafe for him to be out of his house in the evening; a lighted [[grenade]] was even thrown into the house of Mather, who had favored the new practice and had sheltered another [[clergy]]man who had submitted himself to it.
After overcoming considerable difficulty and achieving notable success, Boylston traveled to [[London]] in 1724, published his results, and was elected to the [[Royal Society]] in 1726.
==Slavery==
Mather thought it his Christian duty to introduce slaves to Christianity, which was not an unusual view for his time. "Within his own household, two of his slaves - Onesimus, bought for Mather by his congregation in the mid 1700s, and Ezer, a servant in the 1720s - knew how to read, although we do not know who taught them. Mather even set up and paid for an evening school for blacks and Indians that lasted from at least January 1718 to the end of 1721. Significantly, Mather offered no writing instruction at this school (even though he envisioned such instruction for his own domestic slaves): the school was to instruct its students only in reading the scriptures and learning the catechism." (Monaghan, E.J.) During the colonial period of America writing was not taught to the enslaved.
==Cotton Mather & the Salem Witch Trials==
New Englanders perceived themselves abnormally susceptible to the Devil’s influence in the 17th century. The idea New Englanders now occupied the Devil’s land established this fear.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 16}}</ref> It would only be natural for the Devil to fight back against the pious invaders. Cotton Mather shared this general concern, and combined with New England’s lack of piety, Mather feared divine retribution.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard H. Werking |title= “Reformation is our only preservation: Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft,” |publisher= The William and Mary Quarterly |location= Third Series, Vol. 29, No. 2., |date=1972 |pages=p. 283}}</ref> English writers, who shared Mather’s fears, cited evidence of divine actions to restore the flock.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard H. Werking |title= “Reformation is our only preservation: Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft,” |publisher= The William and Mary Quarterly |location= Third Series, Vol. 29, No. 2., |date=1972 |pages=p. 283}}</ref>In 1681, a conference of ministers met to discuss how to rectify the lack of faith. In an effort to combat the lack of piety, Cotton Mather considered it his duty to observe and record illustrious providences. Cotton Mather’s first action related to the Salem Witch Trials was the publication of his 1684 essay ''Illustrious Provinces''.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard H. Werking |title= “Reformation is our only preservation: Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft,” |publisher= The William and Mary Quarterly |location= Third Series, Vol. 29, No. 2., |date=1972 |pages=p. 284}}</ref> Mather, being an ecclesial man believed in the spiritual side of the world and attempted to prove the existence of the spiritual world with stories of sea rescues, strange apparitions, and witchcraft. Mather aimed to combat materialism, the idea that only physical objects exist.<ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 27}}</ref>
Such was the social climate of New England when the Goodwin children received a strange illness. Mather seeing an opportunity to explore the spiritual world, attempted to treat the children with fasting and prayer.<ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 24}}</ref> After treating the children of the Goodwin family, Mather wrote ''Memorable Providences'', a detailed account of the illness.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 16}}</ref> In 1682 the Parris children received a similar illness to the Goodwin children; and Mather emerged as an important figure in the Salem Witch trials.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 16}}</ref> Even though Mather never presided in the jury; he exhibited great influence over the witch trials. In May 31, 1692, Mather sent a letter “Return of the Several Ministers,” to the trial. This article advised the Judges to limit the use of Spectral evidence, and recommended the release of confessed criminals.<ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 17}}</ref>
===Mather as a negative influence on the trial===
Critics of Cotton Mather assert that he caused the trials because of his 1688 publication ''Remarkable Provinces'', and attempted to revive the trial with his 1692 book ''Wonders of the Invisible World'', and generally whipped up witch hunting zeal. <ref>{{cite book |author= Richard H. Werking |title= “Reformation is our only preservation: Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft,” |publisher= The William and Mary Quarterly |location= Third Series, Vol. 29, No. 2., |date=1972 |pages=p. 281}}</ref> Others have stated, “His own reputation for veracity on the reality of witchcraft prayed, ‘for a good issue.” <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 85}}</ref> Charles Upham mentions Mather called accused witch Martha Carrier a ‘rampant hag.’ <ref>{{cite book |author= Charles Upham |title= Salem Witchcraft |publisher= Frederick Ungar Publishing Co |location= New York |date=1859 |pages=p. 211}}</ref> The critical evidence of Mather’s zealous behavior comes later, during the trial execution of George Burroughs {Harvard Class of 1670}. Upham gives the Robert Calef account of the execution of Mr. Burroughs;
:“Mr. Burroughs was carried in a cart with others, through the streets of Salem, to execution. When he was upon the ladder, he made a speech for the clearing of his innoceney, with such solemn and serious expressions as were to the admiration of all present. His prayer (which he concluded by repeating the Lord’s Prayer) was so well worded, and uttered with such composedness as such fervency of spirit, as was very affecting, and drew tears from many, so that if seemed to some that the spectators would hinder the execution. The accusers said the black man stood and dictated to him. As soon as he was turned off, Mr. Cotton Mather, being mounted upon a horse, addressed himself to the people, partly to declare that he (Mr. Burroughs) was no ordained minister, partly to possess the people of his guilt, saying that the devil often had been transformed into the angle of light…When he [Mr. Burroughs] was cut down, he was dragged by a halter to a hole, or grave, between the rocks, about two feet deep; his shirt and breeched being pulled off, and an old pair of trousers of one executed put on his lower parts: he was so put in, together with Willard and Carrier, that one of his hands, and his chin, and a foot of one of them, was left uncovered.” <ref>{{cite book |author= Charles Upham |title= Salem Witchcraft |publisher= Frederick Ungar Publishing Co |location= New York |date=1959 |pages=p. 301}}</ref>
The second issue with Cotton Mather was his influence in construction of the court for the trials. Bancroft quotes Mather, “Intercession had been made by Cotton Mather for the advancement of William Stoughton, a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed and covetous of distinction.” <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 83}}</ref> Later, referring to the placement of William Stoughton on the trial, which Bancroft noted was against the popular sentiment of the town. <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 83}}</ref> Bancroft referred to a statement in Mather’s diary;
:“The time for a favor is come,” exulted Cotton Mather; “Yea, the set time is come. Instead of my being a made a sacrifice to wicked rulers, my father-in-law, with several related to me, and several brethren of my own church, are among the council. The Governor of the province is not my enemy, but one of my dearest friends.” <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 84}}</ref>
Bancroft also noted; Mather considered witches “among the poor, and vile, and ragged beggars upon Earth.” <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 85}}</ref> Bancroft also asserted that Mather considered the people against the witch trails, ‘witch advocates.’ <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 85}}</ref>
===Mather as a positive influence on the trial===
Chadwick Hansen’s ''Witchcraft at Salem'', published in 1969, defined Mather as a positive influence on the Salem Trials. Hansen considered Mathers handling of the Goodwin Children to be sane and temperate. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 168}}</ref> Hansen also noted that Mather was more concerned with helping the affected children than witch-hunting. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 60}}</ref> Mather treated the affected children through prayer and fasting. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 24}}</ref> Mather also tried to convert accused witch Goodwife Clover after she was accused of practicing witchcraft on the Goodwin children. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 24}}</ref> Most interestingly, and out of character with the previous depictions of Mather, was Mather’s decision not to tell the community of the others whom Goodwife Clover claimed practiced witch craft. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 23}}</ref> One must wonder if Mather desired an opportunity to promote his church through the fear of witchcraft, why he did not used the opportunity presented by the Goodwin family. Lastly, Hansen claimed Mather acted as a moderating influence in the trials by opposing the death penalty for lesser criminals, such as Tituba and Dorcas Good. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 123}}</ref> Hansen also notes that the negative impressions of Cotton Mather stem from his defense of the trials in, ''Wonders of the Invisible World''. Mather became the chief defender of the trial, which diminished accounts of his earlier actions as a moderate influence. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 189}}</ref>
The historians, who examined the life of Cotton Mather after Chadwick Hansen’s book, share Hansen’s view of Cotton Mather. Bernard Rosenthal noted that Mather often gets portrayed as the rabid witch hunter. <ref>{{cite book |author= Bernard Rosenthal |title= Salem Story |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |date=1993 |pages=p. 169}}</ref> Rosenthal also described Mather’s guilt about his inability to restrain the judges during the trial. <ref>{{cite book |author= Bernard Rosenthal |title= Salem Story |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge |date=1993 |pages=p. 202}}</ref> Larry Gregg highlights Mather’s sympathy for the possessed, when Mather stated, “the devil have sometimes represented the shapes of persons not only innocent, but also the very virtuous.” <ref>{{cite book |author= Larry Gregg |title= The Salem Witch Crisis |publisher= Praeger Publishers |location= New York |date=1992 |pages=p. 88}}</ref> And John Demos considered Mather a moderating influence on the trial. <ref>{{cite book |author= John Demos |title= Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford |date=2004 |pages=p. 305}}</ref>
===Post-Trial===
After the trial, Cotton Mather was unrepentant for his role. Of the principle actors in the trial, only Cotton Mather and William Stoughton never admitted guilt. <ref>{{cite book |author= George Bancroft |title= History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent |publisher= Little, Brown, and company |location= Boston |date=1874-1878 |pages=p. 98}}</ref> In fact, in the years after the trial Mather became an increasingly vehement defender of the trial. At the request of then Lieutenant-Governor William Stoughton, Mather wrote ''Wonders of the Invisible World'' in 1693. <ref>{{cite book |author= Babette Levy |title= Cotton Mather |publisher= Twayne Publishers |location= Boston |date=1979 |pages=p. 67}}</ref> The book contained a few of Mather’s sermons, the conditions of the colony and a description of witch trials in Europe. <ref>{{cite book |author= Wendel D. Craker |title= “Spectral Evidence, Non-Spectral acts of Witchcraft, and Confessions at Salem in 1692,”|publisher= The Historical Journal |location= Vol. 40, No. 2 |date=1997 |pages=p. 335}}</ref> Mather also contradicted his own advice in “Return of the Several Ministers,” by defending the use of spectral evidence. <ref>{{cite book |author= Chadwick Hansen |title= Witchcraft at Salem |publisher= George Braziller, Inc |location= New York |date=1969 |pages=p. 209}}</ref> ''Wonders of the Invisible World'' appeared at the same time as Increase Mather’s ''Case of Conscience'', a book critical of the trial. <ref>{{cite book |author= Elaine G. Breslaw |title= Witches of the Atlantic World: A Historical Reader & Primary Sourcebook |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York |date=2000 |pages=p. 455}}</ref> Upon reading ''Wonders of the Invisible World'', Increase Mather publicly burned the book in Harvard Yard. <ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 22}}</ref> Also, Boston merchant, Robert Calef began what became an eight year campaign of attacks on Cotton Mather. <ref>{{cite book |author= Elaine G. Breslaw |title= Witches of the Atlantic World: A Historical Reader & Primary Sourcebook |publisher= New York University Press |location= New York |date=2000 |pages=p. 455}}</ref> The last event in Cotton Mathers involvement with witchcraft was his attempt to cure Mercy Short and Margaret Rule. <ref>{{cite book |author= Richard F. Lovelace |title= The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism |publisher= Christian College Consortium |location= Washington D.C |date=1979 |pages=p. 202}}</ref> Mather later wrote ''A Brand Pluck’d Out of the Burning'' and ''Another Brand Pluckt Out of the Burning'' about curing the women.
==Major works==
*''[[Wonders of the Invisible World]]'' (1693) ISBN 0-7661-6867-0 [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/19/ Online edition (PDF)]
*''[[Magnalia Christi Americana]]'' (1702) ISBN 0-674-54155-3
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/28/ ''The Negro Christianized'' (1706)] Online edition (PDF)
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/29/ ''Theopolis Americana: An Essay on the Golden Street of the Holy City'' (1710)] Online edition (pdf)
*''[[Bonifacius (book)|Bonifacius]]'' (1710) ISBN 0-7661-6924-3
*''[[The Christian Philosopher]]'' (1721) ISBN 0-252-06893-9
*''[[Religious Improvements]]'' (1721)
*''[[The Angel of Bethesda]]'' (1724)
*''[[Manuductio ad Ministerium]]'' (1726)
*''[[A Token for the Children of New England]]'' (1675) ISBN 1-877611-76-X (inspired by the book by [[James Janeway]] and published together with his account in the American volume)
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*Christopher D. Felker, ''Reinventing Cotton Mather in the American Renaissance: ''Magnalia Christi Americana'' in Hawthorne, Stowe, and Stoddard'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), ISBN 1-55553-187-3
*Richard F. Lovelace, ''The American Pietism of Cotton Mather: Origins of American Evangelicalism'', (Grand Rapids, Mich.: American University Press, 1979), ISBN 0-8028-1750-5
* Robert Middlekauff, ''The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596-1728'', ISBN 0-520-21930-9
* E. Jennifer Monaghan, "Learning to Read and Write in Colonial America", ISBN 978-1-55849-581-4
* Kenneth Silverman, ''The Life and Times of Cotton Mather'', ISBN 1-56649-206-8
* Reiner Smolinski, ''The Threefold Paradise of Cotton Mather'', ISBN 0-8203-1519-2
==External links==
*[http://www.gty.org/~phil/mather.htm Cotton Mather's writings]
*[http://collegiateway.org/mather/ Mather's influential commentary on the "collegiate way of living"]
* ''[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/etas/19/ The Wonders of the Invisible World]'' (1693 edition) in [[PDF]] format
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[[Category:1663 births]]
[[Category:1728 deaths]]
[[Category:American sermon writers]]
[[Category:American theologians]]
[[Category:Calvinist ministers and theologians]]
[[Category:English Americans]]
[[Category:Massachusetts colonial-era clergy]]
[[Category:17th century clergy]]
[[Category:18th century clergy]]
[[Category:People of the Salem witch trials]]
[[Category:Religious history of the United States]]
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