Counter-terrorism 83392 225556427 2008-07-14T08:27:45Z Bjenks 1693504 partial revision for brevity {{Cleanup|date=May 2008}} {{Expand|date=January 2007}} {{terrorism}} '''Counter-terrorism''' or '''counterterrorism''' refers to the practices, [[Military tactics|tactics]], techniques, and strategies that [[government]]s, [[military|militaries]], [[police departments]] and corporations adopt in response to [[terrorism|terrorist threats and/or acts]], both real and imputed. The tactic of [[Terrorism]] is available to [[insurgency|insurgents]] and governments. Not all insurgents use terror as a tactic, and some choose not to use it because other tactics work better for them in a particular context. Individuals, such as [[Timothy McVeigh]], may also engage in terrorist acts such as the [[Oklahoma City bombing]]. If the terrorism is part of a broader insurgency, counter-terrorism may also form a part of a [[counter-insurgency]] doctrine, but political, economic, and other measures may focus more on the insurgency than the specific acts of terror. [[Foreign internal defense]] (FID) is a term used by several countries{{Fact|date=July 2008}} for programs either to suppress insurgency, or reduce the conditions under which insurgency could develop. Counter-terrorism includes both the detection of potential acts and the response to related events. ==Anti-terrorism versus counter-terrorism== {{further|[[Detentions following the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]}} The concept of '''anti-terrorism''' emerges from a thorough examining of the concept of [[terrorism]] as well as an attempt to understand and articulate what constitutes terrorism in [[Western World|Western]] terms. It must be remembered that in military contexts, terrorism is a tactic, not an ideology. Terrorism may be a tactic in a war between nation-states, in a [[civil war]], or in an [[insurgency]]. Counter-terrorism refers to offensive strategies intended to prevent a belligerent, in a broader conflict, from successfully using the tactic of terrorism. The U.S. military definition, compatible with the definitions used by [[NATO]] and many other militaries, is "Operations that include the offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, preempt, and respond to terrorism."<ref name=JP1-02>{{citation | last = US Department of Defense | authorlink = U.S. Department of Defense | title = Joint Publication 1-02 Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms | date=12 July 2007 | url = http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf}}</ref> In other words, counter-terrorism is a set of techniques for denying an opponent the use terrorism-based tactics, just as counter-air is a set of techniques for denying the opponent the use of attack aircraft. [[Image:US Customs and Border Protection officers.jpg|thumb|250px|United States Customs and Border Protection officers.]] Anti-terrorism is defensive, intended to reduce the chance of an attack using terrorist tactics at specific points, or to reduce the vulnerability of possible targets to such tactics. "Defensive measures used to reduce the vulnerability of individuals and property to terrorist acts, to include limited response and containment by local military and civilian forces."<ref name=JP1-02 /> To continue the analogy between air and terrorist capability, offensive counter-air missions attack the airfields of the opponent, while defensive counter-air uses antiaircraft missiles to protect a point on one's own territory. The ongoing [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]],<ref name=CS-Israel>{{citation | url = http://countrystudies.us/israel/32.htm | chapter = The Occupied Territories | first1 = Helen Chapin | last1 = Metz | title = Israel: A Country Study | publisher=Library of Congress | year =1988}}</ref> [[Sri Lankan Civil War]],<ref name =UNHCHR-1994>{{citation | url = http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/A4C0BEC5C39CEDACC12571E0005456C3?opendocument | title = UN Expert welcomes Proposed Sri Lanka Commission | author = United Nations Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial executions | date = 5 September 2006 }}</ref> and [[Colombian Civil War]]<ref name=CS-Colombia>{{citation | url = http://countrystudies.us/colombia/89.htm | chapter = Post-National Front Political Developments | first1 = Dennis M. | last = Hanratty |first2 = Sandra W. | last2 = Meditz | title = Colombia: A Country Study | publisher = Library of Congress | year =1988}}</ref> are examples of conflicts where terrorism is present, along with other tactics, so that a participant uses counter- and anti-terrorism to limit the opponent's use of terror tactics. ==Planning for detecting and neutralizing potential terrorist acts== Building a counter-terrorism plan involves all segments of a society or many government agencies. In dealing with foreign terrorists, the lead responsibility is usually at the national level. Because [[propaganda]] and [[indoctrination]] lie at the core of terrorism, understanding their profile and functions increases the ability to counter terrorism more effectively. See the series of articles beginning with [[intelligence cycle management]], and, in particular, [[intelligence analysis]]. [[HUMINT]] presents techniques of describing the social networks that make up terrorist groups. Also relevant are the [[Counterintelligence#Counter-HUMINT |motivations of the individual terrorist]] and the [[Clandestine HUMINT operational techniques#Cellular organization|structure of cell systems]] used by recent non-national terrorist groups. Most counter-terrorism strategies involve an increase in standard police and domestic intelligence. The central activities are traditional: [[telephone tapping|interception of communications]], and the tracing of persons. New technology has, however, expanded the range of [[Manhunt (Military)|military]] and [[manhunt (law enforcement)|law enforcement]] operations. Domestic intelligence is often directed at specific groups, defined on the basis of origin or religion, which is a source of political controversy. [[Mass surveillance]] of an entire population raises objections on [[civil liberties]] grounds. To select the effective action when terrorism appears to be more of an isolated event, the appropriate government organizations need to understand the source, motivation, methods of preparation, and tactics of terrorist groups. Good intelligence is at the heart of such preparation, as well as political and social understanding of any grievances that might be solved. Ideally, one gets information from inside the group, a very difficult challenge for [[HUMINT]] because [[Clandestine cell system|operational terrorist cells]] are often small, with all members known to one another, perhaps even related.<ref name=Feiler2007>{{citation | url = http://www.biu.ac.il/Besa/MSPS74.pdf | title = The Globalization of Terror Funding | author = Feiler, Gil | date = September 2007 | publisher = Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University | page = 29 | id = Mideast Security and Policy Studies No. 74 | accessdate = 2007-11-14 }}</ref> [[Counterintelligence]] is a great challenge with the security of cell-based systems, since the ideal, but nearly impossible, goal is to obtain a [[Clandestine HUMINT|clandestine source]] within the cell. Financial tracking can play a role, as can [[SIGINT|communications intercept]], but both of these approaches need to be balanced against legitimate expectations of privacy. ===Legal contexts=== {{main|Anti-terrorism legislation}} In response to the growing threat of international terrorism many countries have introduced anti-terrorism legislation. * [[United Kingdom]] ** The [[United Kingdom]] has had anti-terrorism legislation in place for more than thirty years. The [[Prevention of Violence Act 1939]] was brought in response to an Irish Republican Army (IRA) campaign of violence under the [[S-Plan]]. This act had been allowed to expire in 1953 and was repealed in 1973 to be replaced by the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act]] a response to [[the Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. From 1974 to 1989 the temporary provisions of the act annually. ** In 2000 the Acts were replaced with the more permanent [[Terrorism Act 2000]], which contained many of their powers, and then the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]]. ** During [[The Troubles]], authorities in [[Northern Ireland]] were accused of employing a [[Shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland| shoot-to-kill policy]] ** The [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] was formally introduced into the Parliament [[November 19]] 2001 two months after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] in America. It received royal assent and went into force on [[December 13]], [[2001]]. On [[December 16]], [[2004]] the Law Lords ruled that Part 4 was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but under the terms of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] it remained in force. The [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]] was drafted to answer the Law Lords ruling and the [[Terrorism Act 2006]] creates new offences related to terrorism, and amends existing ones. The Act was drafted in the aftermath of the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], and like its predecessors some of its terms have proven to be highly controversial. ** [[Great Britain]] dealt with internal threats from terrorism through a secret [[Manhunt (law enforcement)| law enforcement]] training program known as [[Operation Kratos]]. * [[United States]] ** U.S. legal issues surrounding this issue include rulings on the domestic employment of [[Deadly force]] by law enforcement organizations. ** Search and seizure is governed by the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. ** The US passed the [[USA PATRIOT Act]] after the 9/11 attacks, as well as a range of other legislation and [[executive orders]]. ** The [[Department of Homeland Security]] was established to consolidate domestic security agencies to coordinate anti-terrorism, as well as national response to major natural disasters and accidents. ** The [[Posse Comitatus Act]] limits domestic employment of the [[United States Army]], requiring Presidential approval prior to deploying the Army. [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] policy also applies this limitation to the [[United States Marine Corps]], [[United States Navy]], and [[United States Air Force]]. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] can be employed domestically on Presidential order, as was done during the [[Los Angeles riots of 1992]], [[Hurricane Katrina]] and the [[Beltway Sniper]] incidents. ** External or international use of lethal force would require a [[Presidential finding]]. * [[Australia]] ** Australia has passed several anti-terrorism acts in 2004 three acts [[Australian anti-terrorism legislation, 2004|Anti-terrorism Act, 2004, (No 2) and (No 3)]] were passed. The Attorney-General, [[Philip Ruddock]], introduced the ''Anti-terrorism bill, 2004'' on [[March 31]]. He described it as "a bill to strengthen Australia's counter-[[terrorism]] laws in a number of respects - a task made more urgent following the recent tragic [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks|terrorist bombings in Spain]]." He said that Australia's counter-terrorism laws "require review and, where necessary, updating if we are to have a legal framework capable of safeguarding all Australians from the scourge of terrorism." The [[Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005]] supplemented the powers of the earlier acts. The legislation in Australia allows police to detain suspects for up to two weeks without charge, and to electronically track suspects for up to a year. *The [[Australian_Anti-Terrorism_Act_2005#The_.22Shoot_to_Kill.22_Clause| Australian Anti-Terrorism Act of 2005]] included a "shoot-to-kill" clause. In a country, with entrenched [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] traditions, the measures have been controversial and have been criticised by [[civil libertarian]]s and [[Islam]]ic groups. * [[Israel]] ** On [[December 14]], [[2006]] the [[Israeli Supreme Court]] ruled that [[targeted killing]] is a legitimate form of self-defense against terrorists, and outlined several conditions for its use. <ref>[http://elyon1.court.gov.il/Files_ENG/02/690/007/a34/02007690.a34.htm Summary of Israeli Supreme Court Ruling on Targeted Killings] [[December 14]], [[2006]]</ref> ===Terrorism and human rights=== One of the primary difficulties of implementing effective counter-terrorist measures is the waning of civil liberties and individual privacy that such measures often entail, both for citizens of, and for those detained by states attempting to combat terror. At times, measures designed to tighten security have been seen as abuses of power or even violations of [[human rights]]. Examples of these problems can include prolonged, incommunicado detention without judicial review; risk of subjecting to torture during the transfer, return and extradition of people between or within countries; and the adoption of security measures that restrain the rights or freedoms of citizens and breach principles of non-discrimination. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> Examples include: * In November 2003 [[Malaysia]] passed new counter-terrorism laws that were widely criticized by local [[human rights]] groups for being vague and overbroad. Critics claim that the laws put the basic rights of free expression, association, and assembly at risk. Malaysia persisted in holding around 100 alleged militants without trial, including five Malaysian students detained for alleged terrorist activity while studying in Karachi, Pakistan. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> * In November 2003 a Canadian-Syrian national, Maher Arar, alleged publicly that he had been tortured in a Syrian prison after being handed over to the Syrian authorities by U.S. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> * In December 2003 Colombia's congress approved legislation that would give the military the power to arrest, tap telephones and carry out searches without warrants or any previous judicial order. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> * Images of torture and ill-treatment of detainees in US custody in Iraq and other locations have jeopardized the legitimacy of the US war on terrorism and brought on international scrutiny. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> * Hundreds of foreign nationals remain in prolonged indefinite detention without charge or trial in Guantánamo Bay, despite international and US constitutional standards outlawing such practices. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> * Hundreds of people suspected of connections with the Taliban or al Qa'eda remain in long-term arbitrary detention in Pakistan or in US-controlled centres in Afghanistan. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> * China has used the "war on terror" to justify its repression policies in the predominantly Muslim Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region to stifle Uighur identity. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> * In Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Yemen and other countries, scores of people have been arrested and arbitrarily detained in connection with suspected terrorist acts or links to opposition armed groups. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> * Until 2005 eleven men remained in high security detention in the UK under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> Many would argue that such violations exacerbate rather than counter the terrorist threat. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> Human rights advocates argue for the crucial role of [[human rights]] protection as an intrinsic part to fight against terrorism. <ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> This suggests, as proponents of [[human security]] have long argued, that respecting [[human rights]] may indeed help us to incur security. [[Amnesty International]] included a section on confronting terrorism in the recommendations in the Madrid Agenda arising from the Madrid Summit on Democracy and Terrorism (Madrid 8-11 March 2005): :"Democratic principles and values are essential tools in the fight against terrorism. Any successful strategy for dealing with terrorism requires terrorists to be isolated. Consequently, the preference must be to treat terrorism as criminal acts to be handled through existing systems of law enforcement and with full respect for [[human rights]] and the rule of law. We recommend: (1) taking effective measures to make impunity impossible either for acts of terrorism or for the abuse of [[human rights]] in counter-terrorism measures. (2) the incorporation of [[human rights]] laws in all anti-terrorism programmes and policies of national governments as well as international bodies."<ref name="Amnesty International 2005"> Amnesty International (2005): "Counter-terrorism and criminal law in the EU". [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGIOR610132005 online]</ref> While international efforts to combat terrorism have focused on the need to enhance cooperation between states, proponents of human rights (as well as [[human security]]) have suggested that more effort needs to be given to the effective inclusion of [[human rights]] protection as a crucial element in that cooperation. They argue that international [[human rights]] obligations do not stop at borders and a failure to respect [[human rights]] in one state may undermine its effectiveness in the international effort to cooperate to combat terrorism. <ref name="Human Rights News 2004"> Human Rights News (2004): "Human Rights and Counter-Terrorism", in the Briefing to the 60th Session of the UN Commission on Human Rights. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/01/29/global7127.htm online]</ref> ===Preemptive neutralization=== Some countries see pre-emptive attacks as a legitimate strategy. This includes capturing, killing, or disabling suspected terrorists before they can mount an attack. [[Israel]], the [[United States]], and [[Russia]] have taken this approach, while Western European states generally do not. Another major method of pre-emptive neutralization is [[interrogation]] of known or suspected terrorists to obtain information about specific plots, targets, the identity of other terrorists, and whether the interrogation subjects himself as guilty of terrorist involvement. Sometimes more extreme methods are used to increase [[suggestibility]], such as [[sleep deprivation]] or drugs. Such methods may lead captives to offer false information in an attempt to stop the treatment, or due to the confusion brought on by it. These methods are not available to European powers because in 1978 the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled in the [[Ireland v. United Kingdom (1978)|Ireland v. United Kingdom]] case that [[five techniques|such methods]] amounted to a practice of inhuman and degrading treatment, and that such practices were in breach of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] Article 3 (art. 3). ====Non-military preventive actions==== The [[human security]] paradigm outlines a non-military approach which aims to address the enduring underlying inequalities which fuel terrorist activity. Causal factors need to be delineated and measures implemented which allow equal access to resources and [[sustainability]] for all peoples. Such activities empower citizens providing 'freedom from fear' and 'freedom from want'. This can take many forms including the provision of clean drinking water, education, vaccination programs, provision of food and shelter and protection from violence, military or otherwise. Successful human security campaigns have been characterised by the participation of a diverse group of actors including governments, [[NGOs]], and citizens. [[Foreign internal defense]] programs provide outside expert assistance to a threatened government. FID can involve both non-military and military aspects of counter-terrorism. ====Military intervention==== Terrorism has often been used to justify military intervention in countries where terrorists are said to be based. That was the main stated justification for the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]]. It was also a stated justification for the [[second Russian invasion of Chechnya]]. History has shown that military intervention has rarely been successful in stopping or preventing terrorism.{{Dubious|date=March 2008}}<!-- [[Malayan Emergency]], [[Mau Mau]], All but the first IRA campaigns including the [[Irish Civil War]], [[S-Plan]], [[Border Campaign (IRA)]], [[the Troubles]] in Northern Ireland.--> Although military action can disrupt a terrorist group's operations temporarily, it rarely ends the threat.<ref>{{cite book | author = Pape, Robert A. | year = 2005 | title = Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism | publisher = Random House | pages = 237-250 }}</ref> Provoking repression is actually a key goal of terrorism, as most of the time it increases the popularity of the terrorist cause as well as furthers the motivation for continuing terrorism. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/marighella-carlos/1969/06/minimanual-urban-guerrilla/ch38.htm | title = Minimanual of the Urban Guerilla: Popular Support | author = Marighella, Carlos | year = 1969 | accessdate = 2007-11-27 }}</ref> Most probably such a strategy against terrorism is not successful and cannot be as the structural causes of terrorism are not addressed: Relative deprivation that leads to frustration, aggressive foreign policy that leads to 'hate', and psychosocial effects of globalization (as well as other causes) are not solved. Thus repression by the military in itself (particularly if it is not accompanied by other measures) usually leads to short term victories, but tend to be unsuccessful in the long run (e.g. the [[France|French]]'s doctrine described in [[Roger Trinquier]]'s book ''Modern War''<ref name=Trinquier>{{citation | url = http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/trinquier/trinquier.asp | title = Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency | first = Roger | last = Trinquier | year = 1961 | comment = 1964 English translation by Daniel Lee with an Introduction by Bernard B. Fall }}</ref> used in [[Indochina]] and [[Algeria]]). However, new methods (see the new ''Counterinsurgency'' Field Manual<ref name = FM3-24>{{citation | publisher = US Department of the Army | first1 = John A. | last1 = Nagl | first2 = David H.| last2 = Petraeus | first3 = James F. | last3 =Amos |first4 = Sarah | last4 = Sewall | title = Field Manual 3-24 Counterinsurgency | comment = While military manuals rarely show individual authors, [[David Petraeus]] is widely described as establishing many of this volume's concepts. | date = December 2006 | url = http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm3-24.pdf | accessdate = 2008-02-03}} </ref>) such as those taken in [[Iraq]] have yet to be seen as beneficial or ineffectual. ==Planning for response to terrorism== Police, fire, and emergency medical response organizations have obvious roles. Local [[firefighter]]s and emergency medical personnel (often called "first responders") have plans for mitigating the effects of terrorist attacks, although police may deal with threats of such attacks. ===Target-hardening=== Whatever the target of terrorists, there are multiple ways of hardening the targets to prevent the terrorists from hitting their mark, or reducing the damage of attacks. One method is to place [[Jersey barrier]] or other sturdy obstacles outside tall or politically sensitive buildings to prevent car and [[truck bomb]]ing. Aircraft cockpits are kept locked during flights, and have reinforced doors, which only the pilots in the cabin are capable of opening. [[England|English]] [[train stations]] removed their [[waste bin]]s in response to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] threat, as convenient locations for depositing bombs. [[Scotland|Scottish]] stations removed theirs after the [[7 July 2005 London Bombings|7th of July bombing]] of London as a precautionary measure. The [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]] purchased bomb-resistant barriers after the [[September 11 terrorist attacks]]. A more sophisticated target-hardening approach must consider industrial and other critical industrial infrastructure that could be attacked. Terrorists need not import chemical weapons if they can cause a major industrial accident such as the [[Bhopal disaster]] or the [[Halifax explosion]]. Industrial chemicals in manufacturing, shipping, and storage need greater protection, and some efforts are in progress. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A64224-2005Jan10.html | title = D.C. Wants Rail Hazmats Banned: S.C. Wreck Renews Fears for Capital | author = Weiss, Eric M. | date = 2005-01-11 | page = B01 | journal = Washington Post }}</ref> To put this risk into perspective, the first [[Poison gas in World War I#1915: large scale use and lethal gases|major lethal chemical attack in WWI]] used 160 tons of chlorine. Industrial shipments of chlorine, widely used in water purification and the chemical industry, travel in 90 or 55 ton tank cars. To give one more example, the North American electrical grid has already demonstrated, in the [[Northeast Blackout of 2003]], its vulnerability to natural disasters coupled with inadequate, possibly insecure, [[SCADA]] (system control and data acquisition) networks. Part of the vulnerability is due to deregulation leading to much more interconnection in a grid designed for only occasional power-selling between utilities. A very few terrorists, attacking key power facilities when one or more engineers have infiltrated the power control centers, could wreak havoc. Equipping likely targets with containers (i.e., bags) of pig lard has been utilized to discourage attacks by Islamist suicide bombers. The technique was apparently used on a limited scale by British authorities in the 1940s. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3484277.stm | title = Suicide bombing 'pig fat threat | date = 2004-02-13 | journal = BBCNews.com }}</ref> The approach stems from the idea that Muslims perpetrating the attack would not want to be "soiled" by the lard in the moment prior to dying. The idea has been suggested more recently as a deterrent to suicide bombings in Israel. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/57793 | title = Swine: Secret Weapon Against Islamic Terror? | date = 2007-12-09 | journal = ArutzSheva (http://www.israelnationalnews.com) }}</ref> However, the actual effectiveness of this tactic is probably limited as it is possible that a sympathetic Islamic scholar could issue a [[fatwa]] proclaiming that a suicide bomber would not be polluted by the swine products. ===Command and control=== In North America and other continents, for a threatened or completed terrorist attack, the [[Incident Command System]] (ICS) is apt to be invoked to control the various services that may need to be involved in the response. ICS has varied levels of escalation, such as might be needed for multiple incidents in a given area (e.g., [[Attacks on the London Underground#2005 terrorist bomb attacks |the 2005 bombings in London]] or the [[2004 Madrid train bombings]], or all the way to a [[National Response Plan]] invocation if national-level resources are needed. National response, for example, might be needed for a nuclear, biological, radiological, or large chemical attack. ===Damage mitigation=== [[Fire department]]s, perhaps supplemented by public works agencies, utility providers (e.g., gas, water, electricity), and heavy construction contractors, are most apt to deal with the physical consequences of an attack. ===Local security=== Again under an incident command model, local [[police]] can isolate the incident area, reducing confusion, and specialized police units can conduct tactical operations against terrorists, often using [[#Counterterrorism tactical units |specialized counter-terrorist tactical units]]. Bringing in such units will normally involve civil or military authority beyond the local level. ===Medical services=== Emergency medical services will bring the more seriously affected victims to hospitals, which will need to have mass casualty and [[triage]] plans in place. Public health agencies, from local to national level, may be designated to deal with identification, and sometimes mitigation, of possible biological attacks, and sometimes chemical or radiologic contamination. ==Counter-terrorism tactical units== Today, many countries have special units designated to handle terrorist threats. Besides various security agencies, there are elite tactical units, also known as special mission units, whose role is to directly engage terrorists and prevent terrorist attacks. Such units perform both in preventive actions, hostage rescue and responding to on-going attacks. Countries of all sizes can have highly trained counter-terrorist teams. Tactics, techniques and procedures for [[Manhunt (Military)|manhunting]] are under constant development. Most of these measures deal with terrorist attacks that affect an area, or threaten to do so. It is far harder to deal with assassination, or even reprisals on individuals, due to the short (if any) warning time and the quick exfiltration of the assassins. <ref>{{cite journal | author = Stathis N. Kalyvas | url = http://research.yale.edu/stathis/files/Paradox.pdf | title = The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars | year = 2004 | journal = Journal of Ethics | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 97–138 | doi = 10.1023/B:JOET.0000012254.69088.41 }}</ref> Of course, if the assassination is done by a suicide bomber, exfiltration becomes moot. These units are specially trained in [[tactics]] and are very well equipped for [[close quarters battle|CQB]] with emphasis on stealth and performing the mission with minimal casualties. The units include take-over force (assault teams), [[sniper]]s, [[Explosive Ordnance Disposal|EOD]] experts, dog handlers and intelligence officers. See [[Counter-intelligence and counter-terrorism organizations]] for national command, intelligence, and incident mitigation. The majority of counter-terrorism operations at the tactical level, are conducted by state, federal and national [[police|law enforcement agencies]] or [[intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]. In some countries, the military may be called in as a last resort. Obviously, for countries whose military are legally permitted to conduct [[police]] operations, this is a non-issue, and such counter-terrorism operations are conducted by their military. See [[Counter-intelligence]] for command, intelligence and warning, and incident mitigation aspects of counter-terror. ===Examples of actions=== Some counterterrorist actions of the 20th century are listed below. See [[List of hostage crises]] for a more extended list, including hostage-taking that did not end violently. {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;" <caption>Representative Hostage Rescue Operations</caption> |- ! colspan=2|Incident ! Main locale ! Hostage nationality ! Terrorists ! Counter-terrorist force ! Results |- | 1972 ||[[Munich Massacre]] | Munich Olympics, Germany | Israeli | [[Black September (group)|Black September]] | German police | 11 hostages, 1 rescuer, 5 terrorists killed. 3 terrorists captured. |- | 1976 ||[[Operation Entebbe|Entebbe raid]] | Entebbe, Uganda | Mixed. Israelis and Jews separated. | [[PFLP]] | Israeli mixed force | all 6 hijackers, 45 Ugandan troops, 3 hostages and 1 Israeli soldier dead. 100 hostages rescued |- | 1977 ||Hijacking of [[Lufthansa Flight 181]] | Spanish airspace and Mogadishu, Somalia | Mixed | [[PFLP]] | [[GSG 9]] | 1 hostage, 3 hijackers dead, 1 captured. 90 hostages rescued. |- | 1980 ||[[Iranian Embassy Siege]] | London, UK | Iranian | Democratic Revolutionary Movement for the Liberation of Arabistan | [[Special Air Service]] | 1 hostage, 5 terrorists dead, 1 captured, 1 SAS operative received minor burns. |- | 1985 ||Capture of [[Achille Lauro]] hijackers | International airspace and Italy | Mixed | [[PLO]] | US military, turned over to Italy | 1 dead in hijacking, 4 terrorists convicted in Italy |- | 1996 ||[[Japanese embassy hostage crisis]] | Lima, Peru | Japanese and guests (800+) | [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] | Peruvian military & police mixed forces | 1 hostage, 2 rescuers, all 14 terrorists dead. |- | 2000 ||[[Al-Ma'unah#Sauk Siege|Malaysian hostage siege]] | Perak, Malaysia | 2 policemen, 1 army and 1 civilian | [[Al-Ma'unah]] | Malaysian military & police CT mixed forces | 2 hostages dead, 2 rescuers, 1 terrorist dead and all 28 terrorists arrest. |- | 2002 ||[[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] | Moscow | Mixed, mostly Russian (900+) | Chechen | Russian [[OZNAZ]] | 129-204 hostages dead, all 39 terrorists dead. 600-700 rescued |- | 2004 ||[[Beslan school hostage crisis]] | Beslan, North Ossetia-Alania, (an autonomous republic in the North Caucasus region of the Russian Federation). | Russian | Chechen | Mixed Russian | 334 hostages dead and hundreds wounded. 10-21 rescuers dead. 31 hostage takers killed, 1 captured |- | 2007 ||[[Lal Masjid siege]] | Islamabad, Pakistan | | | Pakistani Army and Rangers SSG commandos | 61 militants killed 50 militants captured 23 students killed, 11 SSG killed,1 Ranger killed,33 SSG wounded,8 soldiers wounded,3 Rangers wounded 14 civilians killed |- | 2008 ||[[Operation Jaque]] | Colombia | Mixed |Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia | | 15 hostages released. 2 hostage takers captured |- |} ===Law enforcement counter-terrorist organizations by country=== + indicates military organization allowed to operate domestically. Examples include: * Australia: State and [[Australian Federal Police]] [[Police Tactical Group]]s Australian Protective Service (APS) * Austria: [[EKO Cobra]] * Brazil: [[BOPE]] * Bosnia and Herzegovina: [[SIPA]] * Canada: [[Emergency Response Team (RCMP)|ERT]] * Czech: [[URNA]] National Police Rapid Response Unit or Ultar Rychleho Nasazeni * France: Police units [[GIPN]] and [[Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion]] * Germany: Police [[Spezialeinsatzkommando|SEK]] / [[Mobiles Einsatzkommando|MEK]] and [[Bundespolizei]] [[GSG 9]] * Hong Kong: Police [[Special Duties Unit]] * Iceland: [[Víkingasveitin]] * India: [[National Security Guards|NSG]] * Indonesia: [[Detachment 88]] * Israel: [[YAMAM]] * Italy: [[Nucleo Operativo Centrale di Sicurezza|NOCS]] * Japan: [[Special Assault Team]], [[Special Security Team]] * Malaysia: [[Pasukan Gerakan Khas]], [[Police Combat Diving Unit]] * Netherlands: [[DSI]] (Dutch: Dienst Speciale Interventies, Special Interventions Service) * Norway: [[Beredskapstroppen]], [[Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK)|FSK]]+ * Portugal: [[Grupo de Operações Especiais|GOE]] * Philippines: [[Special Action Force]] and police [[SWAT]] teams * Romania: [[Brigada Antiteroristă]], (counter-terrorist brigade) * Russia: [[Spetsgruppa A]],[[Vympel]] * Sri Lanka: [[Special Task Force]] * Spain: [[Grupo Especial de Operaciones|GEO]] and [[Unidad Especial de Intervención|UEI]] * UK: [[Counter Terrorism Command]] * US: [[FBI]] [[Hostage Rescue Team|HRT]] and state/local Police [[SWAT]] teams, * Taiwan: [[Thunder Squad]] ===Intelligence Group=== *France [[DGSE]] *Israel [[Mossad]] *UK: [[MI6]] *US: [[CIA]] ===Military counter-terrorist organizations by country=== Few military actually engage in domestic counter-terrorism operations, as they are largely limited by policies associated with legal or administrative [[jurisdiction]] from operating in their own country. [[United States Department of Defense]] policy, based on the [[Posse Comitatus Act]], forbids domestic counter-terrorism operations by the US military. In cases such as the [[Iranian Embassy Siege]], the British police formally turned responsibility over to the [[Special Air Service]] when the situation went beyond police capabilities. * Japan: [[Special Operations Group (Japan)|Japanese Special Operations Group]] * Australia: [[Tactical Assault Group]] (East and West) :* [[Australian Special Air Service Regiment]] (TAG West) :* [[4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment]] (TAG East) * Austria: Austrian [[Jagdkommando]] (JaKdo) * Brazil: [[Projeto Talon]] and [[1º Batalhão de Forcas Especiais]] * Canada: [[Joint Task Force 2|JTF-2]] * Colombia: [[Agrupación de Fuerzas Especiales Antiterroristas Urbanas]] (AFEUR) * France: French army ([[gendarmerie]]) unit [[GIGN]] * Germany: [[KSK|German KSK]] * Ireland: [[Irish Army Rangers]] * Israel: [[Sayeret Matkal]], [[Lotar Eilat]], [[Sayeret Duvdevan]], [[Yamam]] * Italy: :* [[Gruppo di Intervento Speciale|GIS]] :* ''[[9th Parachute Assault Regiment|Col Moschin]]'' :* [[Italian commando frogmen|COMSUBIN]] * Malaysia: :* [[Grup Gerak Khas]] :* [[PASKAL]] :* [[PASKAU]] * New Zealand: [[Special Air Service of New Zealand|Special Air Service]] * Philippines: [[1st Scout Ranger Regiment]], [[Light Reaction Battalion]], [[Naval Special Warfare Group]], [[Marine Force Reconnaissance Battalion]] * Spain: :* [[Unidad de Operaciones Especiales (UOE)]] (Navy) :* [[Special Operations Command (Spain)|Mando de Operaciones Especialies (MOE)]] (Army) * Sri Lanka: :* [[Sri Lanka Army Commando Regiment|Commando Regiment]] (Army) :* [[Special Boat Squadron]] (Navy) * UK: :* [[Special Air Service]] :* [[Special Boat Service]] * US: Units of the [[Special Operations Command]] (USSOCOM), principally of the [[Joint Special Operations Command]] (JSOC) including: :* [[United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group]] :* [[United States Army|U.S. Army's]] [[1st SFOD-D]] a.k.a. Delta Force or Combat Applications Group ==In popular culture== * The counter-terrorism espionage operations of Section One (ambiguously set) are the main focus of the plot of ''[[La Femme Nikita (TV series)|La Femme Nikita]]'', created by [[Joel Surnow]]. * The award-winning TV series [[24 (TV series)|24]], also created by Surnow, is about the [[Los Angeles]] branch of the fictional [[Counter Terrorist Unit]] (CTU). * The book and video game series [[Rainbow Six]] is about a fictional counterterrorist team in various fictitious conflicts. * The video game series [[SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs]] traditionally features fictitious counter-terrorist operations conducted by the United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM). * The popular video game ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', developed by [[Valve Software]], pits a team of terrorists against a squad of counter-terrorists. * [[Public Security Section 9]] is a group in the anime/manga [[Ghost in the Shell]], that can be considered a counter-terrorist group. * [[Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare]] (2007) is a videogame by Infinity Ward in which the player controls Sgt. John "Soap" McTavish, a member of counter-terrorism unit 22 SAS, in a quest to stop extremist group Al Asad from securing world domination. * ORION Foundation is the protagonist intelligence agency in the role-playing game ''[[Top Secret/S.I.]]'' whose covert existence is to counter the secret terrorist organization the WEB. * [[G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero]] was a [[G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero (1985 TV series)|cartoon series]], a [[List of G.I. Joe comics|comic book series]], and a [[G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero#The_Toys|popular toy line]] centered on a team of elite commandos battling a terrorist group called [[Cobra Organization|Cobra]]. * The TV series [[The Unit]], produced by ''[[Inside Delta Force]]'' author [[Eric L. Haney]], is based on the US Army 1st SFOD-D ([[Delta Force]]) counterterrorist unit. * The fictional counter-terrorism unit N.O.O.S.E.(National Office Of Security Enforcement) is heavily featured in the video game [[Grand Theft Auto IV]], replacing the U.S. Army as an adversary in police chases. ==Further reading== * Darko Trifunovic, "Islamic Fundamentalist's Global Network-Modus Operandi-Model Bosnia" ref [http://www.analyst-network.com/articles/240/IslamicFundamentalistsGlobalNetworkandModusOperandiModelBosniaPartI.pdf], The Center for Documentation of the Government of Republic of Srpska and The Secretariat of the Government of RS for relation with ICTY, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, 2002. (136 pages + maps in addition) * Darko Trifunovic, "TERRORISM – Global Network of Islamic Fundamentalist's – Part II – Modus operandi-Model Bosnia" ref [http://www.analyst-network.com/profile.php?user_id=240], The Government of Republic of Srpska and The Secretariat of the Government of RS for relation with ICTY, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, 2004 (275 pages) * Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "Tunnel at the End of the Light: A Critique of U.S. Counter-terrorist Grand Strategy," ''Cambridge Review of International Affairs'', Vol. 15, No. 3 (2002), pp. 549–563. * Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "How to Lose a War on Terror: A Comparative Analysis of a Counterinsurgency Success and Failure," in Jan Ångström and Isabelle Duyvesteyn, Eds., ''Understanding Victory and Defeat in Contemporary War'' (London: Frank Cass, 2007). * Ariel Merari, "Terrorism as a Strategy in Insurgency," ''Terrorism and Political Violence'', Vol. 5, No. 4 (Winter 1993), pp. 213–251. * James Mitchell, "Identifying Potential Terrorist Targets" a study in the use of convergence. G2 Whitepaper on terrorism, copyright 2006, G2. Counterterrorism Conference, June 2006, Washington D.C. * Marc Sageman, ''Understanding Terror Networks'' (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), ISBN 0-8122-3808-7. * Kuriansky, Judy, Editor, "Terror in the Holy Land: Inside the Anguish of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict" (2006, ISBN 0-275-99041-9, Praeger Publishers). * George Crawford, ''[[Manhunting: Reversing the Polarity of Warfare]]'', (2008, ISBN 1-60441-332-8, PublishAmerica). ==See also== * [[Counterinsurgency]] * [[Explosive detection]] * [[State terrorism]] * [[Manhunt (Military)]] * [[Manhunt (law enforcement)]] * [[Manhunting]] * [[Targeted killing]] * [[Extrajudicial execution]] * [[Extraordinary rendition]] ==References== {{reflist | 2}} ==External links== {{commons}} * [http://insurgencyresearchgroup.wordpress.com/ Insurgency Research Group] - Multi-expert blog dedicated to the study of insurgency and the development of counter-insurgency policy. * [http://www.whodareswins.com/ Special air service and Counter terrorism] * [http://www.counterterrorism.nl/ Counterterrorism.nl]: An academic research project aimed at investigating the effectiveness of past counter-terrorism campaigns to derive some constant features from their analysis in order to empirically inform policy makers. * [http://www.hlswatch.com/ HLSWatch.com]: Homeland Security Watch policy and current events resource * {{cite web | author = Faculty of Security Studies | title = Faculty of Security Studies University of Belgrade | url = http://www.fb.bg.ac.yu | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = Ali Khan | title = A Legal Theory of International Terrorism | url = http://classes.washburnlaw.edu/khan/publications/19CLR945.htm | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya | title = The Institute for Counter-Terrorism | url = http://www.ict.org.il | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = International Security Instructors | title = Countering Global Terrorism | url = http://www.isi-team.com/ | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = RAND Corporation | title = Terrorism and Homeland Security | url = http://www.rand.org/research_areas/terrorism/ | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * Agentura. Ru Studies and Research Centre [http://studies.agentura.ru/english/listing/terrorismprevention/ Terrorism prevention in Russia: one year after Beslan] Retrieved [[September 3]], [[2005]]. * {{cite web | author = SpecEncyclopaedia | title = The World's Specialists Online | url = http://www.specencyclopaedia.com/ | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = Special Forces Search Engine | title = Categories | url = http://www.sfahq.com/ | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = SpecWarNet | title = Your Source for Special Warfare | url = http://specwarnet.com/ | accessmonthday = June 19 | accessyear = 2006 }} * {{cite web | author = Wired | title = Can Math Help in Terror War? | url = http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,65299-0.html | accessmonthday = October 10 | accessyear = 2004 }} * {{cite web | author = Dan Sommer | title = Counter Terrorism Manual| url = http://www.dansommer.biz/Surveillance_Detection.html/ | accessmonthday = November 3 | accessyear = 2006 }} * [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/ U.S. Department of State Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism]. Retrieved [[November 21]], [[2006]]. * {{cite web | author = Counter-Terrorism Training | title = Guerrero De Sombra Academia| url = http://guerrerodesombra.blogspot.com/ | accessmonthday = December 25 | accessyear = 2006 }} * [http://www.counter-terrorism-law.org/ Counter-terrorism-law.org] * [http://www.athenaintelligence.org/index2.html Athena Intelligence] Advanced Research Network on Insurgency and Terrorism {{terrorismbycountry}} [[Category:Counter-terrorism]] [[Category:Law enforcement]] [[Category:Propaganda]] [[Category:Terrorism]] [[bg:Контратероризъм]] [[de:Terrorismusbekämpfung]] [[fr:Antiterrorisme]] [[he:מלחמה בטרור]] [[ja:カウンターテロリズム]] [[no:Kontraterrorisme]] [[pl:Antyterroryzm]] [[pt:Antiterrorismo]] [[sk:Špeciálne protiteroristické jednotky]] [[sl:Protiteroristično bojevanje]] [[yi:קאנטערטעראריזם]]