Cranberry
7025
224653377
2008-07-09T20:45:35Z
Wychmere
4294797
/* Harvesting and food uses */
{{Otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Cranberry
| image = Cranberry bog.jpg
| image_width = 255px
| image_caption = Cranberry fruit
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = [[Ericaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Vaccinium]]''
| subgenus = ''Oxycoccos''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Vaccinium erythrocarpum''<br/>
''Vaccinium macrocarpon''<br/>
''Vaccinium microcarpum''<br/>
''Vaccinium oxycoccos''
}}
[[Image:Cranberrymap.jpg|thumb|250px|Approximate ranges of the cranberries in sect. ''Oxycoccos'': Red: Common Cranberry. Orange: Small Cranberry. Green: American Cranberry.]]
'''Cranberries''' are a group of [[evergreen]] dwarf [[shrub]]s or trailing vines in the genus '''''[[Vaccinium]]''''' subgenus '''''Oxycoccos''''', or in some treatments, in the distinct genus '''''Oxycoccos'''''. They are found in [[acid]]ic [[bog]]s throughout the cooler parts of the [[Northern Hemisphere]].
Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 m long and 5 to 20 cm in height,<ref>[http://www.cranberryinstitute.org/about_cranberry.htm Cranberry Institute: About Cranberries<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> with slender, wiry stems, not thickly woody, and small [[evergreen]] leaves. The [[flower]]s are dark pink, with very distinct ''reflexed'' [[petal]]s, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. They are pollinated by domestic honey bees. The fruit is a [[false berry]] that is larger than the leaves of the plant; it is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe. It is edible, with an acidic taste that can overwhelm its sweetness.
Cranberries are a major commercial crop in certain US states and Canadian provinces (see "Cultivation and Uses" below). Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries, with the remainder sold fresh to consumers. [[Cranberry sauce]] is regarded an indispensable part of traditional American and Canadian [[Thanksgiving]] menus and European winter festivals.
Since the early 21st century within the global [[functional food]] industry, there has been a rapidly growing recognition of cranberries for their consumer product popularity, [[nutrient]] content and [[antioxidant]] qualities, giving them commercial status as a novel "[[superfruit]]".<ref>[http://www.npicenter.com/anm/templates/newsATemp.aspx?articleid=17826&zoneid=201 Superfruits Take Center Stage :: News :: Natural and Nutritional Products Industry Center<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.hortresearch.co.nz/index/news/493 HortResearch - Newsroom - 'Superfruits' the future of health<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.nznewsuk.co.uk/news/?ID=4952&StartRow=91 Superfruit To the Rescue > General News | New Zealand News UK | nznewsuk.co.uk<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==Species and description==
There are three to four species of cranberry, classified in two sections:
;Subgenus ''Oxycoccos'', sect. ''Oxycoccos''
*'''''Vaccinium oxycoccos''''' or ''Oxycoccos palustris'' ('''Common Cranberry''' or '''Northern Cranberry''') is widespread throughout the cool temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], including northern [[Europe]], northern [[Asia]] and northern [[North America]]. It has small 5-10 mm leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a small pale pink [[berry]], with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour.
*'''''Vaccinium microcarpum''''' or ''Oxycoccos microcarpus'' ('''Small Cranberry''') occurs in northern Europe and northern Asia, and differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless. Some botanists include it within ''V. oxycoccos''.
*'''''Vaccinium macrocarpon''''' or ''Oxycoccos macrocarpus'' ('''Large cranberry''', '''American Cranberry''', '''Bearberry''') native to northeastern [[North America]] (eastern [[Canada]], and eastern [[United States]], south to [[North Carolina]] at high altitudes). It differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being larger, 10-20 mm long, and in its slightly apple-like taste.
;Subgenus ''Oxycoccos'', sect. ''Oxycoccoides''
*'''''Vaccinium erythrocarpum''''' or ''Oxycoccos erythrocarpus'' ([[Southern Mountain Cranberry]]) native to southeastern [[North America]] at high altitudes in the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]], and also in eastern [[Asia]].
[[Image:Vaccinum oxycoccos 120604.jpg|left|thumb|''Vaccinium oxycoccos'' flowers]]
Cranberries are related to the [[bilberry|bilberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], and [[huckleberry|huckleberries]], all in ''Vaccinium'' subgenus ''Vaccinium''. These differ in having stouter, woodier stems forming taller shrubs, and in the bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed.
Some plants of the completely unrelated genus ''[[Viburnum]]'' are sometimes inaccurately called "highbush cranberries".
Cranberries are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable [[phytoplasma]] disease common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts and New Jersey.
==Etymology and history==
[[Image:Jonathan eastman johnson cranberry harvest.jpg|thumb|''The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]]'', [[Eastman Johnson]], 1880.]]
The name cranberry derives from "craneberry", first named by early European settlers in America who felt the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a [[crane (bird)]]. Another name used in northeastern Canada is '''mossberry'''. The traditional English name for ''Vaccinium oxycoccos'', '''fenberry''', originated from plants found growing in [[fen]] (marsh) lands.
Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia{{Fact|date=December 2007}} and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]], the berries were originally wild-harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were the first to use cranberries as food. Calling the red berries '''Sassamanash''', natives may have introduced cranberries to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] who incorporated the berries into traditional [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] feasts. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall (American)|Henry Hall]] is credited as first to farm cranberries in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts|Dennis]] around 1816.
==Cultivation and uses==
===Geography and bog method===
[[Image:Cranberrys beim Ernten.jpeg|thumb|right|Cranberry harvest in [[New Jersey]]]]
Cranberries are a major commercial crop in the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Maine]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[New Jersey]], [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], and [[Wisconsin]], as well as in the Canadian provinces of [[British Columbia]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and [[Quebec]]. According to the Economic Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, Wisconsin is the leading producer of cranberries, with nearly half of U.S. production. Massachusetts is the second largest U.S. producer, with over one-third of total domestic production. A very small production is found in southern [[Chile]], in the [[Baltic States]], and in [[Eastern Europe]].
Historically, cranberry beds were constructed in wetlands. Currently cranberry beds are constructed in upland areas that have a shallow water table. The topsoil is scraped off to form [[dike (construction)|dike]]s around the bed perimeter. Clean sand is hauled in to a depth of four to eight inches. The surface is laser leveled with a slight crown in the center to facilitate drainage. Beds are frequently drained with socked tile in addition to the perimeter ditch. In addition to making it possible to hold water, the dikes allow equipment to service the beds without driving on the vines. Irrigation equipment is installed in the bed to provide [[irrigation]] for vine growth and for Spring and Autumn frost protection.
===Cultivation===
Cranberry vines are propagated by moving vines from an established bed. The vines are spread on the surface of the sand of the new bed and pushed into the sand with a blunt disk. The vines are watered frequently during the first few weeks until roots form and new shoots grow. Beds are given frequent light application of nitrogen fertilizer during the first year. The cost of establishment for new cranberry beds is estimated to be about US$70,000 per hectare.
A common misconception about cranberry production is that the beds remain flooded throughout the year. During the growing season cranberry beds are not flooded, but are irrigated regularly to maintain soil moisture. Beds are flooded in the Autumn to facilitate harvest and again during the Winter to protect against low temperatures. In cold climates like Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and eastern Canada the Winter flood typically freezes into ice while in warmer climates the water remains liquid. When ice forms on the beds trucks can be driven onto the ice to spread a thin layer of sand that helps to control pests and to rejuvenate the vines. Sanding is done every three to five years.
===Harvesting and food uses===
Cranberries are harvested in the Fall when the fruit takes on its distinctive deep red color. This is usually in late September and into October. To harvest cranberries, the beds are flooded with six to eight inches of water above the vines. A harvester is driven through the beds to remove the fruit from the vines. For the past 50 years, water reel type harvesters have been used. Harvested cranberries float in the water and can be corralled into a corner of the bed and conveyed or pumped from the bed. From the farm, cranberries are taken to receiving stations where they are cleaned, sorted, and stored prior to packaging or processing. In 2005, a new type of cranberry harvester called the Ruby Slipper was introduced into the industry. Whether this type of harvester with fewer moving parts will be accepted by the industry still remains to be seen.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}
Although most cranberries are wet-picked as described above, 5-10% of the US crop is still dry-picked. This entails higher labor costs and lower yield, but dry-picked berries are less bruised and can be sold as fresh fruit instead of having to be immediately frozen or processed. Originally performed with two-handed comb scoops, dry picking is today accomplished by motorized, walk-behind harvesters which must be small enough to traverse beds without damaging the vines.
White cranberry juice drinks are made from regular cranberries that have been harvested after the fruits are mature, but before they have attained their characteristic dark red color. Yields are lower on beds harvested early and the early flooding tends to damage vines, but not severely.
About 95% of cranberries are processed into products such as juice drinks, sauce, and sweetened dried cranberries. The remaining 5% is sold fresh to consumers. Cranberries destined for processing are usually frozen in bulk containers shortly after arriving at a receiving station. To allow air movement deterring decay, cranberries for fresh market are stored in shallow bins or boxes with perforated or slatted bottoms. Because harvest occurs in late Autumn, cranberries for fresh market are frequently stored in thick walled barns without mechanical refrigeration. Temperatures are regulated by opening and closing vents in the barn as needed.
Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a [[compote]] or [[Jelly (fruit preserves)|jelly]], often known generically as [[cranberry sauce]]. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast [[Domesticated turkey|turkey]] meat and are considered by some to be a staple of English Christmas dinners, and the [[Thanksgiving (Canada)|Canadian]] and [[Holidays of the United States|US holiday]] [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]]. The berry is also used in baking ([[muffin]]s, [[scones]] and [[cake]]s) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied.
Fresh cranberries can be frozen at home, and will keep up to nine months; they can be used directly in recipes without thawing.<ref>[http://www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/faq.htm The American Cranberry-Basic Information on Cranberries<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Cranberry juice, usually sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make "cranberry juice cocktail" or blended with other fruit juices, is a major use of cranberries.
==Nutrients and antioxidant capacity==
Cranberries have moderate levels of [[vitamin C]], [[dietary fiber]] and the essential [[dietary mineral]], [[manganese]], as well as a balanced profile of other essential micronutrients.<ref>[http://whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=nutrientprofile&dbid=172] Cranberry in-depth nutrient analysis, ''World's Healthiest Foods''</ref>
By measure of the [[Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity]] with an ORAC score of 9,584 units per 100 g, cranberry ranks near the top of 277 commonly consumed foods in the United States.<ref>[http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/12354500/Data/ORAC/ORAC07.pdf] Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity of Selected Foods - 2007; Nutrient Data Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, ''United States Department of Agriculture'', November 2007</ref>
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
|colspan=3|'''Nutrients in raw cranberries'''<ref>[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl U.S. Department of Agriculture: Nutrient Data Laboratory -- USDA Nutrient Database] ''A searchable index of food nutrient composition.'' Search on cranberries for raw cranberry nutrient composition. Search on cranberry for other cranberry products.</ref>
|-
! Nutrient
! Value per 100 grams
! % [[Daily Value]]
|-
| Energy
| 46 kcal
|
|-
| Fiber, total dietary
| 4.6 g
| 15.3%
|-
| Sugars, total
| 4.04 g
|
|-
| [[Calcium]], Ca
| 8 mg
| 0.8%
|-
| [[Magnesium]], Mg
| 6 mg
| 1.9%
|-
| [[Manganese]], Mn
| 0.15 mg
| 7%
|-
| [[Phosphorus]], P
| 13 mg
| 1.9%
|-
| [[Potassium]], K
| 85 mg
| 1.8%
|-
| [[Sodium]], Na
| 2 mg
| 0.1%
|-
| [[Vitamin C]], total ascorbic acid
| 13.3 mg
| 16%
|-
| [[Vitamin A]], IU
| 60 IU
| 9%
|-
| [[Vitamin K]], mcg
| 5.1 mcg
| 6.4%
|-
| [[Carotene]], beta
| 36 mcg
| ne
|-
| [[Lutein]] + [[zeaxanthin]]
| 91 mcg
| ne
|}
</center>
<center>
ne: Daily Value not established
</center>
== Potential health benefits ==
===Phytochemicals===
Cranberries are a source of [[polyphenol antioxidant]]s, [[phytochemicals]] under active research for possible benefits to the [[cardiovascular system]], [[immune system]] and as anti-[[cancer]] agents.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17360173&query_hl=13&itool=pubmed_docsum A review of the interaction among dietary antioxid...[J Nutr Biochem. 2007] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17141749&query_hl=11&itool=pubmed_docsum Dietary polyphenols: good, bad, or indifferent for...[Cardiovasc Res. 2007] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Cranberry juice contains a chemical component, a high [[Molecular mass|molecular weight]] non-[[Dialysis (biochemistry)|dializable]] material (NDM), as noted above, that is able to inhibit and even reverse the formation of [[Dental plaque|plaque]] by [[Streptococcus]] mutan pathogens that cause tooth decay.<ref>[http://www.cranberryinstitute.org/health/dental.htm The Cranberry Institute]</ref><ref>[http://www.webmd.com/content/article/115/111780 Blocking tooth decay]</ref> Cranberry juice components also show efficacy against formation of [[kidney stone]]s.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14616463&query_hl=15&itool=pubmed_docsum Influence of cranberry juice on the urinary risk f...[BJU Int. 2003] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=12373623 Effect of blackcurrant-, cranberry- and plum juice...[Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Raw cranberries and cranberry juice are abundant food sources of the [[anthocyanidin]] [[flavonoid]]s, [[cyanidin]], [[peonidin]] and [[quercetin]].<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16032375] Duthie SJ, Jenkinson AM, Crozier A, Mullen W, Pirie L, Kyle J, Yap LS, Christen P, Duthie GG.
The effects of cranberry juice consumption on antioxidant status and biomarkers relating to heart disease and cancer in healthy human volunteers. ''Eur J Nutr.'' 2006 Mar;45(2):113-22.</ref><ref>Zheng W, Wang SY. Oxygen radical absorbing capacity of phenolics in blueberries, cranberries, chokeberries, and lingonberries. J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Jan 15;51(2):502-9.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12517117]</ref> These compounds have an unknown effect on human health, but are powerful against human [[cancer]] cells [[in vitro]]. Their effect in humans, however, is unproven, showing poor absorption into human cells and rapid elimination from blood.
Nonetheless, since 2002, there has been an increasing focus on the potential role of cranberry [[polyphenolic]] constituents in preventing several types of cancer.<ref>[http://newsletter.cancerresearchsociety.ca/bulletin/omni/articles/4190.aspx Cancer Research Society Newsletter : The Cranberry – A Natural and Delicious Antidote<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17533651&ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Cranberry and blueberry: evidence for protective e...[Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17176222&ordinalpos=3&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum In vivo inhibition of growth of human tumor lines ...[Nutr Cancer. 2006] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17147415&ordinalpos=4&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Blackberry, black raspberry, blueberry, cranberry,...[J Agric Food Chem. 2006] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=12452674&ordinalpos=14&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of co...[J Agric Food Chem. 2002] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Cranberry [[tannin]]s have anti-[[clotting]] properties and may reduce [[urinary tract infection]]s and the amount of [[dental plaque]]-causing oral bacteria, thus being a [[prophylaxis]] for [[gingivitis]].<ref>http://www.umaine.edu/umext/cranberries/Health%20Benefits%20-%20Keep%20Doctor%20&%20Dentist%20Away.htm University of Maine</ref>
===Anti-adhesion properties===
There is potential benefit of cranberry juice consumption against bacterial infections in the [[urinary system]]. While much of the evidence is equivocal, hypotheses state that an effect occurs from a component of the juice competitively inhibiting bacterial attachment to the [[Urinary bladder|bladder]] and [[urethra]],<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16055161] Howell AB, Reed JD, Krueger CG, Winterbottom R, Cunningham DG, Leahy M. A-type cranberry proanthocyanidins and uropathogenic bacterial anti-adhesion activity. ''Phytochemistry.'' 2005 Sep;66(18):2281-91.</ref> allowing the bacteria to be flushed out more easily.
Although promising for anti-bacterial activity, long-term consumption of cranberry juice has only limited evidence for beneficial effects against [[urinary tract infections]] in women.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15106157&query_hl=0&itool=pubmed_docsum Cranberries for preventing urinary tract infection...[Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Similar applications have not been successfully proved in other clinical trials of consuming cranberry juice or tablets by people with [[spinal cord injury]] associated with bladder [[catheterization]], [[neurogenic bladder]] or infrequent [[urination]], any of which may be associated with increased susceptibility to bacterial infections.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15156934&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum Evaluation of cranberry supplement for reduction o...[J Spinal Cord Med. 2004] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15156935&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum Effect of cranberry extract on bacteriuria and pyu...[J Spinal Cord Med. 2004] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17043681&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum Spinal-injured neuropathic bladder antisepsis (SIN...[Spinal Cord. 2007] - PubMed Result<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
===Current and completed clinical trials===
In April 2004, the French government agency AFSSA, which regulates food products in a way similar to the United States [[FDA]], granted approval of cranberry juice as an antibacterial agent for [[urinary tract]] health.<ref>[http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?n=53743-cranberry-health-claims] Cranberry health claims to boost sales in France, ''FoodNavigator.com-Europe'', July 2004</ref>
To date, four completed randomized [[clinical trial]]s have shown evidence for inhibiting bacterial infections in the urinary tract of women by drinking cranberry juice over a 12 month period.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17492798] Jepson RG, Craig JC. A systematic review of the evidence for cranberries and blueberries in UTI prevention.
''Mol Nutr Food Res.'' 2007 Jun;51(6):738-45.</ref>
The [[US National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] (NCCAM) also reports three recently completed and four ongoing clinical trials of cranberry juice or [[capsule]]s (pharmacy).<ref>[http://clinicaltrials.gov/search/term=(NCCAM)+%5BSPONSOR%5D+(cranberry)+%5BTREATMENT%5D?recruiting=false
Clinicaltrials.gov, January 2008</ref> Six of these human studies are examining antibacterial effects in female urinary tract infections. One evaluates effects of cranberry [[polyphenol]]s on [[cytochrome P450]] enzymes involved in metabolism. To evaluate the drug interaction potential of cranberry, [[alprazolam]], [[dextromethorphan]] and [[caffeine]] are being examined. As of January 2008, the results of these trials have not been published.
===Possible contraindications===
An autumn 2004 caution from the [[Committee on Safety of Medicines]], the UK agency dealing with drug safety, advised patients taking [[warfarin]] not to drink cranberry juice after adverse effects (such as increased incidence of bruising) were reported, possibly resulting from the presence of [[salicylic acid]] native to [[polyphenol]]-rich plants such as the cranberry. However, during 2006-8, several reviews of case reports and pilot studies have failed to confirm this effect, collectively indicating no statistically significant interaction between daily consumption of 250 mL cranberry juice and warfarin in the general population.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17126638] Li Z, Seeram NP, Carpenter CL, Thames G, Minutti C, Bowerman S. Cranberry does not affect prothrombin time in male subjects on warfarin.
''J Am Diet Assoc.'' 2006 Dec;106(12):2057-61.</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17322161] Pham DQ, Pham AQ. Interaction potential between cranberry juice and warfarin. ''Am J Health Syst Pharm.'' 2007 Mar 1;64(5):490-4.</ref>
==Marketing and economics==
===History===
Cranberry sales have traditionally been associated with the [[United States]] [[holiday]]s of [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]] and [[Christmas]]. Until the 1930s most of the crop was sold fresh.
Cranberry growers have a long history of cooperative [[marketing]]. As early as 1904, John Gaynor, a [[Wisconsin]] grower, and A.U. Chaney, a fruit broker from [[Des Moines, Iowa]], organized Wisconsin growers into a cooperative called the Wisconsin Cranberry Sales Company to receive a uniform price from buyers. Growers in [[New Jersey]] and [[Massachusetts]] were also organized into cooperatives, creating the National Fruit Exchange that marketed fruit under the [[Eatmor]] [[brand]]. The success of cooperative marketing almost led to its failure. With consistent and high prices, area and production doubled between 1903 and 1917 and prices fell. In 1918, [[US$]]54,000 was spent on advertising, leading to US$1 million in increased sales.
With [[surplus]] cranberries and changing American households some enterprising growers began [[canning]] cranberries that were below-grade for fresh market. [[Competition]] between canners was fierce because [[profit]]s were thin. The [[Ocean Spray (cooperative)|Ocean Spray]] cooperative was established in 1930 through a merger of three primary processing companies: Ocean Spray Preserving company, Makepeace Preserving Co, and Cranberry Products Co. The new company was called Cranberry Canners, Inc. and used the Ocean Spray label on their products. Since the new company represented over 90% of the market, it would have been illegal (cf. [[United States antitrust law|antitrust]]) had [[attorney]] John Quarles not found an exemption for [[agricultural cooperative]]s. As of 2006, about 65% of the North American industry belongs to the Ocean Spray cooperative. (The percentage may be slightly higher in [[Canada]] than in the U.S.)
A turning point for the industry occurred on [[November 9]], [[1959]] when the secretary of the [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] [[Arthur S. Flemming]] announced that some of the 1959 crop was tainted with traces of the [[herbicide]] [[aminotriazole]]. The market for cranberries collapsed and growers lost millions of dollars.<ref> [http://thehound.net/19870404/mp3s/start12.mp3 "Cranberry Blues" 1959 recording (mp3 file) by [[Robert Williams]] and the Groovers]</ref> However, the scare taught the industry that they could not be completely dependent on the holiday market for their products and had to find year round markets for their fruit. They also had to be excruciatingly careful about their use of [[pesticide]]s.
After the aminotriazole scare, Ocean Spray reorganized and spent substantial sums on [[product development]]. New products such as cranberry apple [[juice]] blends were introduced, followed by other juice blends.
A [[Federal Marketing Order]] that is authorized to synchronize supply and demand was approved in 1962. The order has been renewed and modified slightly in subsequent years, but it has allowed for more stable marketing. The market order has been invoked during six crop years: 1962 (12%), 1963 (5%), 1970 (10%), 1971 (12%), 2000 (15%), and 2001 (35%). Even though supply still slightly exceeds demand, there is little will to invoke the Federal Marketing Order out of the realization that any pullback in supply by U.S. growers would easily be filled by Canadian production.
Prices and production increased steadily during the 1980s and 1990s. Prices peaked at about $65.00 per barrel (A cranberry barrel = 100 pounds or 45.4 kg) in 1996 then fell to $18.00 per barrel in 2001. The cause for the preciptous drop was classic oversupply. Production had outpaced consumption leading to substantial inventory in freezers or as concentrate.
Cranberry handlers (processors) include [[Ocean Spray (cooperative)|Ocean Spray]], Cliffstar, Inc., Northland Cranberries, Clement Pappas & Co., Decas Cranberry Products as well as a number of small handlers and processors.<ref>http://www.pubhort.org/hr/hr21/HR_21_07_00000000.pdf</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{commons|Category:Cranberries}}
* Germplasm Resources Information Network: [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18661 Sect. ''Oxycoccus''] and [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?18658 Sect. ''Oxycoccoides'']
* [http://www.cranberries.org Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Association] for information on cranberry culture
* [http://www.umass.edu/cranberry University of Massachusetts Amherst Cranberry Station] for information on cranberry research
* [http://www.library.wisc.edu/guides/agnic/cranberry/cranhome.html Cranberry Library Page] Hosted by the University of Wisconsin-Madison
* [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=44426885&x=-89758258&z=15&l=0&m=s Wikimapia] An overhead view of a cranberry farm near Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin
*[http://journals.aol.com/monponsett/HighAboveCourtside/entries/2006/11/09/the-million-cran-march/1693 Cranberry Harvest, Cape Cod ]
*[http://pemaruccicenter.rutgers.edu/ Cranberry research at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey]
[[Category:Flora of Alaska]]
[[Category:Vaccinium]]
[[Category:Berries]]
[[ang:Fenberge]]
[[de:Moosbeeren]]
[[es:Arándano rojo]]
[[eo:Oksikoko]]
[[fr:Canneberge]]
[[ko:넌출월귤]]
[[hr:Brusnica]]
[[it:Ossicocco]]
[[he:חמוציות]]
[[lt:Spanguolė]]
[[nl:Veenbes]]
[[ja:クランベリー]]
[[no:Tranebær]]
[[pl:Żurawina]]
[[ru:Клюква]]
[[fi:Isokarpalo]]
[[sv:Tranbär]]
[[zh:小紅莓]]