Criticism of Christianity 2646111 224941401 2008-07-11T02:52:06Z 24.8.117.19 /* Hell and damnation */ {{POV|date=May 2008}} Throughout the [[history of Christianity]], a wide range of [[Christian]]s and non-Christians alike have offered '''criticisms of Christianity''', the [[Church]], and Christians themselves. Christians have responded to many of these criticisms, partially through the field of [[Christian apologetics]]. Other criticism addresses the Christian teachings specifically and concerns interpretations and dogmas related to Christianity. {{Christianity}} ==Within Christianity== The [[New Testament]] itself presents numerous criticisms of various churches and individual Christians (for example {{bibleverse||1Corinthians|11:17}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|2:11}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse||Revelation|3:14-15}}). Additional documentation of internal Christian criticisms of individuals and movements is available throughout [[church history]]. Two of the most notable examples are the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] and the [[Protestant Reformation]]. In [[1054]], after decades of mounting tensions, papal legates (representatives of the recently-deceased [[Bishop of Rome]], [[Leo IX]]) excommunicated the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Michael Cerularius]] on 16 July, 1054. The Patriarch responded by calling a synod which anathematized the legates.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13535a.htm 'The Eastern Schism',] ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.</ref><ref>[http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/history_timothy_ware_1.htm#n4 ''Excerpts from the Orthodox Church by Bishop Kallistos Ware, Part I: History.'']</ref> Known as the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]], this gave rise to Catholicism in the West and Orthodoxy in the East. The names themselves preclude compromise: ''catholic'' means "universal", and ''orthodox'' means "correct belief/praise".<ref>[http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=1391 Meaning of 'doxa']</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=orthodox Etymology online: Orthodox]</ref><ref>From Greek [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2374940 'orthodoxia'], meaning "right opinion", literally "that which appears straight".</ref> The [[Protestant Reformation]] followed publication of [[The 95 Theses]], critical of medieval Catholicism, by [[Martin Luther]] in 1517. Since that time, Protestant groups have split among themselves continuously, forming a complex family tree of descendant [[denominations]].<ref>"As of 1980 David B. Barrett identified 20,800 Christian denominations worldwide." 'Denominationalism', ''Dictionary of Christianity in America'', (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1990), p. 351.</ref><ref>A [[United Nations]] report counted 23,000 denominations in 1989. ''World Census of Religious Activities'', (New York: U.N. Information Center, 1989).</ref> This consistent division is often noted by critics and reflected upon sadly by Protestants themselves.<ref>"... bewailing their "unhappy divisions" and vainly crying for a union." [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12495a.htm 'Protestantism',] ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.</ref> However, others see it as evidence of active debate and progress, and therefore health.{{Fact|date=October 2007}} Even prior to the Protestant Reformation and the Great Schism, the theological unity of Christianity was several times demonstrably more theoretical than actual, notably at the time of [[Arius]], prompting the Roman Emperor [[Constantine I]] to call the [[First Council of Nicaea|first ecumenical council at Nicaea]]. Unlike the Reformation and Schism, official unity was preserved by the consensus at Nicaea — of more than 250 bishops only two remained with Arius. However, modern historians note several features of Nicaea, and other debates, that would not pass modern scrutiny for representative processes. A legacy of Nicaea is English phrases that use the Greek name for the letter ''i'', ''[[Iota#Common English phrase|iota]]'', to refer to matters of extreme detail. In deciding whether Arius was right or wrong in his reading of the New Testament, the bishops at Nicaea debated whether the New Testament says that [[God the Father]] and [[God the Son]] have ''one-and-the-same'' nature, or merely ''similar'' natures. The Greek they used for these ideas has single words for each, which differ only by a single letter ''i'' — ''homo-ousios'' (same nature) or ''homoi-ousios'' (like nature). Nicea decided the first was correct, so [[anathema]]tized the ''i'' as a [[weasel word|weasel]]. Scholars associated with the [[Federal Vision]] theology have argued against the idea that a Christian is someone who subscribes to a particular belief system called "Christianity". For example, [[Peter Leithart]] states that the Bible speaks of "[[Christians]]" and of "the [[Church]]", but not of "Christianity".<ref>Leithart, Peter. ''Against Christianity''. ISBN 1-591-28006-0.</ref> Some Christian writers, such as Dave Andrews, also reject the term ''Christianity'' on the basis that organised [[religion]] can detract from following [[Jesus]].<ref>Andrews, Dave. "Too Much Christianity, Too Little Christ," ''Zadok'' 66 [2000] 12-15.</ref> == Compatibility with science == [[Image:Gossuin de Metz - L'image du monde - BNF Fr. 574 fo42 - miniature.jpg|thumb|left|Medieval artistic illustration of the [[spherical Earth]] in a 14th century copy of ''[[Gautier de Metz|L'Image du monde]]'' (ca. 1246).]] {{seealso|Science and the Bible|Relationship between religion and science}} David C. Lindberg states that the widespread popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance and superstition due to the Christian church is a "caricature". According to Lindberg, while there are some portions of the classical tradition which suggests this view but these were exceptional cases. It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world. The relation between Christianity and science is complex, according to Lindberg.<ref>David C. Lindberg, "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, ed. ''When Science & Christianity Meet'', (Chicago: University of Chicago Pr., 2003).</ref> Lindberg reports that "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led. There was no warfare between science and the church."<ref>quoted in: Peters, Ted. "Science and Religion". ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' pg. 8182</ref> [[Ted Peters]] in ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' writes that although there is some truth in the "Galileo's condemnation" story but through exaggerations, it has now become "a modern myth perpetuated by those wishing to see warfare between science and religion who were allegedly persecuted by an atavistic and dogma-bound ecclesiastical authority."<ref>quoted in Ted Peters,Science and Religion, Encyclopedia of Religion, p.8182 </ref> During the nineteenth century developed what scholars today call the ''[[conflict thesis]]'' (or the ''warfare model'', or the ''Draper-White thesis''), a popular notion but one rejected by nearly all modern historians{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. According to it, any interaction between [[religion]] and [[science]] almost inevitably would lead to open hostility, with religion usually taking the part of the aggressor against new scientific ideas. A popular example was the misconception that people from the [[Middle Ages]] believed that the [[Flat Earth|Earth was flat]], and that only science, freed from religious dogma, had shown that it was round. This notion of a war between science and religion (especially Christianity) remained common in the historiography of science during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>Quotation from Ferngren's introduction at "Gary Ferngren (editor). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0.": "...while [John] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind." (p. x)</ref> Similar views have also been supported by many scientists. The astronomer [[Carl Sagan]], for example, mentions the dispute between the astronomical systems of [[Ptolemy]] (who thought that the sun and planets revolved around the earth) and [[Copernicus]] (who thought the earth and planets revolved around the sun). He states in his ''A personal Voyage'' that [[Ptolemy]]'s belief was "supported by the church through the Dark Ages...[It] effectively prevented the advance of astronomy for 1,500 years."<ref>Sagan, Carl. ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage]], Episode 3: "The Harmony of the Worlds"</ref> Sagan rebukes claims that religion and science did not have an antagonizing relationship in the Medieval era by explaining the axioms of Copernicus' discovery: :''This Copernican model worked at least as well as Ptolemy's crystal spheres, but it annoyed an awful lot of people. The Catholic Church later put Copernicus' work on its list of forbidden books, and Martin Luther described Copernicus in these words...'' {{cquote|People give ear to an upstart astrologer [Copernicus] who strives to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or the firmament, the sun or the moon. Whoever wishes to appear clever must devise some new system, which of all systems is of course the very best. ''This fool'' wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth.|Martin Luther|''Tischreden, ed Walsch XXII, 2260}} Peters believes that Luther had only heard tales of Copernicus' new idea and didn't really have any serious engagements on this issue. Regarding Copernicus' thought, he is said to "have quipped that this would be comparable to somebody riding on a cart or in a ship and imagining that he was standing still while the earth and the trees were moving." Peters concludes that "spoken in jest, such items ought not to be interpreted as indicating any general opposition to science."<ref>Ted Peters, "Science and Religion," ''Encyclopedia of Religion,'' p.8182</ref> The framing of the relationship between Christianity and science as being predominantly one of conflict is still prevalent in [[popular culture]], but the same is not true among today's academics on the topic.<ref>From Ferngren's introduction:<br>"...while [John] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind. (p. x) - Gary Ferngren, (2002); Introduction, p. ix)</ref> Most of today's historians of science consider that the conflict thesis has been superseded by subsequent historical research<ref>Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. (Introduction, p. ix)</ref> [[Image:Studying astronomy and geometry.jpg|thumb|left|Clerks studying astronomy and geometry.<br>France, early 15th century.]] Moreover, many scientists through out history held strong Christian beliefs and strove to reconcile science and religion. [[Isaac Newton]], for example, believed that [[gravity]] caused the [[planet]]s to revolve about the [[Sun]], and credited [[God]] with the design, yet his [[Isaac Newton's religious views|religious views]] are generally considered heretical. In the concluding General Scholium to the [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]], he wrote: "''This most beautiful System of the Sun, Planets and Comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being.''" Other famous founders of science as we know it who adhered to Christian beliefs included Galileo, Johannes Kepler, and Blaise Pascal.<ref>[http://www.rae.org/influsci.html Christian Influences In The Sciences<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm World's Greatest Creation Scientists from Y1K to Y2K<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Image:God the Geometer.jpg|right|thumb|Medieval scholars sought to understand the [[geometry|geometric]] and harmonic principles by which God created the universe.<ref name="Geometer">The [[compass]] in this [[13th century]] [[manuscript]] is a symbol of God's act of Creation.<br>* Thomas Woods, ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'', (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7</ref>]] [[Historians of science]] such as [[J.L. Heilbron]],<ref>{{cite web |title=J.L. Heilbron |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/contribhome.php?get=heil01 |publisher=London Review of Books |accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> [[Alistair Cameron Crombie]], [[David C Lindberg|David Lindberg]],<ref>{{cite book |title=When Science and Christianity Meet |last=Lindberg |first=David |year=2003 |month=October |coauthors=Numbers, Ronald L |publisher=University of Chicago Press |id=ISBN 0-226-48214-6}}</ref> [[Edward Grant]], [[Thomas Goldstein]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Dawn of Modern Science: From the Ancient Greeks to the Renaissance |last=Goldstein |first=Thomas |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1995 |month=April |id=ISBN 0-306-80637-1}}</ref> and Ted Davis also have been revising the common notion — the product of [[black legend]]s say some — that medieval Christianity has had a negative influence in the development of civilization. These historians believe that not only did the monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions, but the medieval church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of many [[universities]] which, under its leadership, grew rapidly in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, St. Thomas Aquinas, the Church's "model theologian," not only argued that reason is in harmony with faith, he even recognized that reason can contribute to understanding revelation, and so encouraged intellectual development. He was not unlike other medieval theologians who sought out reason in the effort to defend his faith.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Fides et Ratio'' (Faith and Reason), IV |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/ENCYC/JP2FIDES.HTM#Ch4b |author=Pope John Paul II |year=1998 |month=September |accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> Also, some today's scholars, such as [[Stanley Jaki]], have suggested that Christianity with its particular [[worldview]] was actually a crucial factor for the emergence of modern science.<ref>Jaki, Stanley L. The Savior of Science, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company (July 2000), ISBN 0802847722.</ref> ==Ethics == {{seealso|Criticism of the Bible|Ethics in the Bible}} ===Slavery=== {{Main|Christianity and slavery}} The practice of slavery in the West predates the emergence of Christianity by thousands of years. [[Early Christianity]] variously opposed, accepted, or ignored slavery.<ref name="Robinson">{{cite web | title =Christianity and slavery | first =B. A. | last =Robinson | date =2006 | url =http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_slav.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> In early Medieval times, the Church discouraged slavery throughout Europe, largely eliminating it.<ref name="Ostling">{{cite web | title =Human slavery: why was it accepted in the Bible? | first =Richard N. | last=Ostling | authorlink=Richard Ostling | work= Salt Lake City Deseret Morning News | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050917/ai_n15352881 |date=2005-09-17 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> That changed in [[1452]], when [[Pope Nicholas V]] instituted hereditary slavery of captured [[Muslims]] and pagans, which effectively meant [[African]]s or [[Asian people|Asian]]s. As he read the Bible, God had instructed his faithful to make slaves of the neighboring heathens. Since then, various Christian groups taught that Africans were the descendants of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]], cursed with "the mark of Ham" (dark skin) to be servants to the descendants of [[Japheth]] (Europeans) and [[Shem]] (Asians).<ref name="Robinson">{{cite web | title =Christianity and slavery | first =B. A. | last =Robinson | date =2006 | url =http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_slav.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> [[Rodney Stark]] makes the argument in ''For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts, and the End of Slavery'', that Christianity helped to end slavery worldwide, as does [[Lamin Sanneh]] in ''Abolitionists Abroad''. These authors point out that Christians who viewed slavery as wrong on the basis of their religious convictions spearheaded [[abolitionism]], and many of the early campaigners for the abolition of slavery were driven by their Christian faith and a desire to realize their view that all people are equal under God.<ref>{{cite web | title =Human slavery: why was it accepted in the Bible? | first =Richard N. | last=Ostling | work= Salt Lake City Deseret Morning News | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050917/ai_n15352881 |date=2005-09-17 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> In the late 17th century, [[anabaptists]] began to criticize slavery. Criticisms from the [[Society of Friends]], [[Mennonites]], and the [[Amish]] followed suit. Prominent among these Christian abolitionists were [[William Wilberforce]], and [[John Woolman]]. [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]] wrote her famous book, ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'', according to her Christian beliefs in 1852. In Britain and America, Quakers were active in abolitionism. A group of Quakers founded the first English abolitionist organization <!--"in 1873" cannot be correct -->, and a Quaker petition brought the issue before government that same year. The Quakers continued to be influential throughout the lifetime of the movement, in many ways leading the way for the campaign. [[John Wesley]], the founder of [[Methodism]], was instrumental in starting abolitionism as a popular movement.<ref>{{cite web | title =Abolitionist Movement | work=MSN Encyclopedia Encarta | url =http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570452_2/Abolitionist_Movement.html | publisher= Microsoft | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> Today, only some periphery groups such as the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and other Christian [[hate group]]s on the racist fringes of the [[Christian Reconstructionist]] and [[Christian Identity]] movements advocate the reinstitution of slavery.<ref name="Robinson">{{cite web | title =Christianity and slavery | first =B. A. | last =Robinson | date =2006 | url =http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_slav.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> With these exceptions, all Christian faith groups now condemn slavery, and see the practice as incompatible with basic Christian principles.<ref name="Robinson">{{cite web | title =Christianity and slavery | first =B. A. | last =Robinson | date =2006 | url =http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_slav.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref><ref name="Ostling">{{cite web | title =Human slavery: why was it accepted in the Bible? | first =Richard N. | last=Ostling | work= Salt Lake City Desert News | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050917/ai_n15352881 |date=2005-09-17 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> In addition to aiding abolitionism, many Christians made further efforts toward establishing racial equality, contributing to the [[Civil Rights Movement]].<ref>{{cite web | title =Civil Rights Movement in the United States | work=MSN Encyclopedia Encarta | url =http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580647_2/Civil_Rights_Movement_in_the_United_States.html | publisher= Microsoft | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> ''The African American Review'' notes the important role Christian [[revivalism]] in the [[black church]] played in the Civil Rights Movement.<ref>{{cite web | title =Religious Revivalism in the Civil Rights Movement | work=African American Review | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2838/is_4_36/ai_97515888 | date= Winter, 2002 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], an ordained [[Baptist]] minister, was a leader of the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] and president of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]], a Christian Civil Rights organization.<ref>{{cite web | title =Martin Luther King: The Nobel Peace Prize 1964 | publisher =The Nobel Foundation | url =http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-bio.html | accessdate = 2006-01-03 }}</ref> [[Image:RFJesus.jpg|thumb|A hypothetical reconstruction of someone from the same time and place of Jesus, created by forensic artist Richard Neave.]] ===Eurocentrism=== In his book ''Enlarging the Story: Perspectives on Writing World Christian History'', Richard Fox Young views the connection between Christianity and Eurocentrism as tenuous, and points to the [[postcolonial]] and non-European nature of the [[emerging Church]] and its impact on the development of World Christianity. In the postcolonial world, Christianity has lost its association with the West.<ref name="Miller">{{cite web | title =Global gospel: Christianity is alive and well in the Southern Hemisphere | first =Sara | last =Miller | work =Christian Century | date =2002-07-17 | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_15_119/ai_90190880 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref><ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=320 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> At the turn of the millennium, 60% of the world's two billion Christians lived in Africa, Latin America, or Asia, and by 2025, those demographics will shift to an estimated 67% of the world's three billion Christians.<ref>{{cite web | title =The Christian Revolution: The Changing Demographics of Christianity | work =World Christianity | publisher =St. John in the Wilderness Adult Education and Formation | url =http://www.stjohnadulted.org/worldchrist1.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> The rise of Christianity in the southern hemisphere, especially [[northern Africa]] and [[Latin America]], in the late 20th and early 21st centuries is a "grassroots movement"<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=320 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> that has generated new forms of Christian theology and worship,<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=318, 320 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> and shifted the cultural and geographic focal point of the Church away from the West.<ref name="Miller">{{cite web | title =Global gospel: Christianity is alive and well in the Southern Hemisphere | first =Sara | last =Miller | work =Christian Century | date =2002-07-17 | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_15_119/ai_90190880 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> The prominence of the southern hemisphere's Christianity has brought with it a cultural and intellectual diversity<ref>{{cite web | title =The Christian Revolution: The Changing Demographics of Christianity | work =World Christianity | publisher =St. John in the Wilderness Adult Education and Formation | url =http://www.stjohnadulted.org/worldchrist1.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> to World Christianity, and contributed such ideas as [[Liberation Theology]].<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=318 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> Christianity is a religion open to all [[human race|humanity]]<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=290-1 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> that counts one out of every three people on earth among its members.<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=280 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> [[Christendom]] encompasses a greater area of land than that of any other religious territory.<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=381 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> In terms of both population and geography, Christianity is the world's largest religion.<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=280, 381 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> As such, Christianity contains a great diversity,<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=280 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> and has followers from a wide range of ethnicities, nationalities, and cultures.<ref>{{cite web | title =Predominant Religions | publisher =Adherents.com | url =http://www.adherents.com/adh_predom.html | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> Both Europeans and non-Hispanic Whites are shrinking minorities in the Church.<ref>{{cite web | title =The Christian Revolution: The Changing Demographics of Christianity | work =World Christianity | publisher =St. John in the Wilderness Adult Education and Formation | url =http://www.stjohnadulted.org/worldchrist1.htm | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> Christianity originated as a sect of [[Judaism]] in the [[Middle East]],<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=290-1 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> as [[Jesus]], the founder and central figure of Christianity, lived and held his ministry in the Middle East.<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=280 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> [[Paul of Tarsus]], an ethnic Jew<ref>Paul describes himself as "an Israelite of the tribe of Benjamin, circumcised on the eighth day" {{nkjv|Phil|3:5|Phil. 3:5}}</ref> who was born and lived in the Middle East, holds such importance to Christianity that some call him the religion's "Second Founder".<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=291-2 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> The greatest influence on Christianity after Paul, [[Augustine of Hippo]], a [[Church Father]], a [[Doctor of the Church]], and an eminent [[theologian]], was North African.<ref name="hopfe">{{cite book | last =Hopfe | first =Lewis M. | coauthors =Mark R. Woodward | title =Religions of the World | publisher =Pearson | date =2005 | location =Saddle River, New Jersey | pages=299 | id =0131195158 }}</ref> ===Christianity and women=== {{seealso|Christian views about women}} [[Image:Joan of arc miniature graded.jpg|thumb|[[Joan of Arc]] led battles in the fight to free France from England. She believed that God had commanded her to do so. Upon capture, she was tried for [[heresy]] by an English court and burned at the stake. She is now a [[saint]] venerated in the [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Thurston | first = Herbert | contribution = St. Joan of Arc | year = 1910 | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia | editor-last = Obstat, | editor-first = Nihil | volume = VIII | place = New York | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08409c.htm }} </ref>]] Though many women disciples and servants are recorded in the [[Pauline epistles]], there have been occasions in which women have been denigrated and forced into a second-class status. Until the latter part of the twentieth century, only the names of very few women who contributed to the formation of Christianity in its earliest years were widely known: Mary, the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/tree.html mother of Jesus]; Mary Magdalene, disciple of Jesus and the first witness to the resurrection; and Mary and Martha, the sisters who offered him hospitality in Bethany.<ref name="King">"King, Karen L. "Women in Ancient Christianity: the New Discoveries." Karen L. King is Professor of New Testament Studies and the History of Ancient Christianity at Harvard University in the Divinity School. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/women.html</ref> Harvard scholar Karen King writes that more of the many women who contributed to the formation of Christianity in its earliest years are becoming known. Further, she concludes that for centuries in Western Christianity, Mary Magdalene has been wrongly identified the adulteress and repentant prostitute presented in {{Bibleref2|John|8}}– a connection supposed by tradition but nowhere claimed in the New Testament.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} According to King, newly found evidence shows that she was an influential figure, a prominent disciple and leader of one wing of the early Christian movement that promoted women's leadership.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} King claims that every sect within early Christianity which had advocated women's prominence in ancient Christianity was eventually declared heretical, and evidence of women's early leadership roles was ''erased'' or suppressed.<ref name="King" /> Professor Elizabeth Clark cites early Christian writings by authors such as [[Augustine]], [[Tertullian]] and [[John Chrysostom]] as being exemplary of the negative perception of women that has been perpetuated in church tradition.<ref>Clark, Elizabeth. "''Women in the Early Church''".</ref> Although very unfavorable attitudes toward women prevailed in the world into which Jesus came,{{Fact|date=February 2008}} there is no recorded instance where Jesus disgraces, belittles, reproaches, or stereotypes a woman.<ref name="Staggs">Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. ''Woman in the World of Jesus.'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978</ref> The treatment and attitude shown to these women is often considered to be evidence that Jesus treated women with great dignity and respect.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Various theologians have concluded that the canonical examples of the manner of Jesus are instructive for inferring his attitudes toward women. They are seen as showing repeatedly and consistently how he liberated and affirmed women.<ref name="GB">Bilezikian, Gilbert. ''Beyond Sex Roles (2nd ed.)'' Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker, 1989, pp. 82–104</ref> In 2000, the [[Southern Baptist Convention]] voted to revise its ''statement of faith'', opposing women as pastors. While this decision is not binding and would not prevent women from serving as pastors, the revision itself has been criticized by some from within the convention.<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/06/14/southern.baptists.02/ CNN.com - US - Southern Baptists vote against women pastors - June 14, 2000<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Feminists]] have consistently accused notions such as a male God, male prophets, and the man-centred stories in the Bible of contributing to a patriarchy. <ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-religion/ Feminist philosophy of religion]</ref> ===Christianity and Politics=== {{see also|Christofascism|Dominionism}} Some [[left-wing politics|leftists]] and [[libertarianism|libertarians]] use the term ''Christian fascism'' or ''[[Christofascism]]'' to describe what some see as an emerging proto-fascism and possible [[theocracy]] in the United States. <ref> See, for example, [http://www.counterpunch.org/leupp01132005.html Everybody's Talkin' About Christian Fascism] by Gary Leupp.</ref> Reverend Rich Lang of the [[United Methodist Church|Trinity United Methodist Church]] of [[Seattle]] gave a sermon titled "[[George W. Bush|George Bush]] and the Rise of Christian Fascism", in which he said, "I want to flesh out the ideology of the Christian Fascism that Mr. Bush articulates. It is a form of Christianity that is the mirror opposite of what Jesus embodied.".<ref>[http://www.yuricareport.com/Dominionism/Lang_BushAndTheRiseOfChristianFascism.html George Bush and the Rise of Christian Fascism]</ref> ===Christianity and Violence=== Many critics of Christianity (and other monotheistic religions) have cited the violent acts of Christianized nations as another reason to denounce the religion. For example, science-fiction writer [[Arthur C. Clarke]] said that he could not forgive religions for the atrocities and wars over time.<ref>Clarke, Arthur C. & Watts, Alan (January), “At the Interface: Technology and Mysticism”, Playboy (Chicago, Ill.: HMH Publishing) 19 (1): 94, ISBN 0032-1478, OCLC 3534353</ref> [[Richard Dawkins]] makes a similar case in his book, ''[[The God Delusion]].'' This criticism is not limited to atheists and agnostics, however, as [[Christian pacifists]] would argue that Christianity had been co-opted by militant states to simply provide justification for political agendas; that is, violence is antithetical to the teachings of Jesus, and as such war and genocide are regarded as un-Christian acts. ==Doctrine== ===Hell and damnation=== {{seealso|Problem of Hell}} [[Image:Adamandevesin.jpg|thumb|left|[[Adam and Eve]] being driven from Eden due to original sin, portrayed by [[Gustave Doré]].]] Christianity has been criticized for seeking to persuade people into accepting its authority through simple fear of punishment or, conversely, through hope of reward after death, rather than through rational argumentation or empirical evidence.<ref>"Let no cultured person draw near, none wise and none sensible, for all that kind of thing we count evil; but if any man is ignorant, if any man is wanting in sense and culture, if anybody is a fool, let him come boldly [to become a Christian]. [[Celsus]], AD178</ref> Traditional Christian doctrine assumes that, without faith in Jesus Christ, one is subject to eternal [[hell]]fire. <blockquote>''Since we all inherit Adam's sin, we all deserve eternal damnation. All who die unbaptized, even infants, will go to hell and suffer unending torment. We have no reason to complain of this, since we are all wicked. (In the Confessions, the Saint enumerates the crimes of which he was guilty in the cradle.) But by God's free grace certain people, among those who have been baptized, are chosen to go to heaven; these are the elect. They do not go to heaven because they are good; we are all totally depraved, except insofar as God's grace, which is only bestowed on the elect, enables us to be otherwise. No reason can be given why some are saved and the rest damned; this is due to God's unmotivated choice. Damnation proves God's justice; salvation His mercy. Both equally display His goodness''.<ref name="multiple">''A history of Western Philosophy by Bertrand Russell'', Simon & Schuster, 1945 </ref></blockquote> Critics regard the eternal punishment of those who fail to adopt Christian faith as morally objectionable, and consider it an abhorrent picture of the nature of the world. On a similar theme objections are made against the perceived injustice of punishing a person for all eternity for a temporal crime. Some Christians agree (see [[Annihilationism]] and [[Trinitarian Universalism]]). These beliefs have been considered especially repugnant<ref>Bible Teaching and Religious Practice essay: "Europe and Elsewhere," [[Mark Twain]], 1923)</ref> when the claimed omnipotent God makes, or allows a person to come into existence, with a nature that desires that which God finds objectionable.<ref>[[Albert Einstein]], ''Out of My Later Years (New York: Philosophical Library'', 1950), p. 27</ref> ===Atonement=== The idea of [[atonement]] for [[original sin]] is criticized by [[Richard Dawkins]] on the grounds that the image of God as requiring the suffering and death of Jesus to effect reconciliation with humankind is immoral. The view is summarized by Dawkins: "if God wanted to forgive our sins, why not just forgive them? Who is God trying to impress?"<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0774118/quotes Root of All Evil? (2006) (TV) - Memorable quotes<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Christians often respond to this objection by claiming that the sacrifice of Christ on the cross was the greatest expression of divine mercy God could give while still maintaining perfect justice.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} [[Robert G. Ingersoll|Robert Green Ingersoll]] suggests that the concept of the atonement is simply an extension of the Mosaic tradition of blood sacrifice and "is the enemy of morality".<ref>[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/herman_kittredge/bio_ingersoll/chapter_11.html A Biographical Appreciation of Robert Green Ingersoll: Chapter 11]</ref> The death of Jesus Christ represents the blood sacrifice to end all blood sacrifices; the resulting mechanism of atonement by proxy through that final sacrifice has appeal as a more convenient and much less costly approach to redemption than repeated animal sacrifice – a common sense solution to the problem of reinterpreting ancient religious approaches based on sacrifice. Prominent Christian apologist, Josh McDowell, in ''More Than A Carpenter'', addresses the issue through an analogy of a real-life judge in California who was forced to fine his daughter $100 for speeding, but then came down, took off his robe, and paid the fine for her from his billfold.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} ===The Second Coming=== {{weasel}} {{main|Second Coming}} A fundamental belief of Christianity is that Christ will return to the earth to conquer evil and rule over the faithful - a simplified definition of the [[Second Coming]]. Since the first century until modern times, some Christian leaders and their followers have prophesied that this would happen, usually during the lifetime of the person making the prophecy, and frequently within the next 20 years after the prophecy. This practice seems to contradict a fundamental Christian principle that says that no one knows when Christ will come ({{bibleverse||Mark|13:32}}). The failure of even one of these many prophecies to come true often has the effect of trivializing Christian teachings and making the church seem unreliable. Several verses in the [[New Testament]] appear to contain [[Jesus]]' predictions that the [[Second Coming]] would take place within a century following his death. Most notably, Matthew 10:22-23, 16:27-28, 23:36, 24:29-34, 26:62-64; Mark 9:1, Mark 14:24-30, 14:60-62; and Luke 9:27. However, according to some Christian theologians, many of these statements of Jesus are Jesus quoting from the Old Testament books such as the [[Book of Isaiah]] and [[Book of Daniel]] which many Christians assume renders them metaphorical, not literal, prophecies. An example is Jesus' predictions of the [[Olivet discourse]], where much is taken from [[Isaiah]]'s predictions of the fall of [[Babylon]] and God's judgments on the world. Such statements have contributed to the [[Preterism]] movement, a belief that the [[Second Coming]] had already taken place by the end of the first century CE. [[C.S. Lewis]] said this will be called "the most embarrassing verse in the Bible."<ref>[http://www.worldwithoutend.info/bbc/books/articles/cslewis.htm The World's Last Night and Other Essays]</ref> ===The Afterlife=== What often poses problems for Christians is the nature of the afterlife portrayed by the history of the land of [[Ancient Israel]], or the [[Old Testament]]. George E. Mendenhall believes there is no concept of immortality or life after death in the Old Testament.<ref>''From Witchcraft to Justice: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament,'' George E. Mendenhall. </ref> The presumption is that the deceased are inert, lifeless, and engaging in no activity.<ref>''From Witchcraft to Justice: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament,'' George E. Mendenhall. </ref> [[Image:Seghersjob.jpg|thumb|right|Job seen arguing with his friends concerning the suffering Satan put him through. Portrayed by Gerard Seghers.]] The idea of [[Sheol]] or a state of nothingness was shared among Babylonian and Israelite beliefs. "[[Sheol]], as it was called by the ancient Israelites, is the land of no return, lying below the cosmic ocean, to which all, the mighty and the weak, travel in the ghostly form they assume after death, known as Raphraim. There the dead have no experience of either joy or pain, perceiving no light, feeling no movement."<ref name=multiply>Hiroshi Obayashi, ''Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions. See Introduction. </ref> Professor Obayshi alludes that the Israelites were satisfied with such a shadowy realm of afterlife because they were more deeply concerned with survival.<ref name=multiply>Hiroshi Obayashi, ''Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions. See Introduction. </ref> This theme of prosperity via unity is very much portrayed in the [[Book of Joshua]]. The descendants of Moses, led from Egypt, follow [[Joshua]] into [[Canaan]] where they capture much of the land, the book ascribes this to their religious piety. The famed [[walls of Jericho]] even fall when Priests encircle the walls and blow ram horns. This theme of unity resonates in the next stanza where Joshua suffers a setback at the easily conquerable town of [[Ai (Bible)|Ai]]. God lets the [[Israelites]] lose in battle because a man stole booty from the victory prior, this exemplifies the Old Testament's logic of salvation via collective survival. [[Image:Achanstoned.jpg|thumb|left|[[Achan]], who was stoned to death in front of his sons and daughters. A great ''cairn of stones'' was the burial for criminals, portrayed by [[Gustave Doré]].]] Recent Archaeology has revealed that the town of Ai was destroyed 1,000 years before the story took place, 500 years before the fall of Jericho,<ref>''Shifting Ground in the Holy Land,'' Jennifer Wallace. Smithsonian Magazine, May 2006. </ref> however the cult-like theme of unity and [[sheol]] which largely shaped the ancient tradition of Judaism and thus Christianity is later dispersed when only the most pious of Jews were being massacred during the [[Maccabean]] revolt. :''The suffering during the Maccabean period became the most serious challenge to the old Israelite thinking. This time it was not the shared suffering of all the Jews, but only those who remained loyal to the Torah who suffered and died. Thus the ancient belief of Sheol, the underworld, which summarized the common fate of all the Jews, proved no longer satisfactory. The logic of salvation that focused only on corporate or collective survival was no longer sufficient. The fate of the individual who perished for the faith had to be addressed. It was through this situation that the idea of resurrection, which Robert Goldenberg calls "the most individualistic of all religious conceptions," was introduced into Judaism... Resurrection and apocalypticism were the Judaic answer to changing times.''<ref name=multiple40>Hiroshi Obayashi, ''Death and the Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions.'' (Praeger Publishers, 1992.) See Introduction </ref> <br style="clear:both" /> ==Scripture== {{seealso|Criticism of the Bible|The Bible and History|Internal consistency and the Bible}} {{weasel}} [[Image:Abrahamthreeangels.jpg|thumb|left|[[Abraham]], whose unconditional promises were not fulfilled by Jesus according to people of the Jewish tradition. Portrait done by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]] Skeptics reject Christianity because of its reliance on the [[Bible]], the most recent parts of which were written during the Roman period, almost 2000 years ago, with older parts dating back many centuries before that. The [[Hebrew Bible]], referred to by Christians as the [[Old Testament]], is a history of the land of [[Israel]]. God gave [[Abraham]] unconditional promises entailing multitudinous progeny, nationhood, royal leaders, and land possession. The Hebrew Bible's prophetic literature ends waiting for [[Judah]] to be restored via a new monarch, one who will restore the Davidic kingdom and possibly create universal peace. The [[New Testament]] traces Jesus' line to that of David; however according to Professor [[Stephen L. Harris]]: :''Jesus did not accomplish what Israel's prophets said the Messiah was commissioned to do: He did not deliver the covenant people from their Gentile enemies, reassemble those scattered in the Diaspora, restore the Davidic kingdom, or establish universal peace (cf Isa. 9:6-7; 11:7-12:16, etc.). Instead of freeing Jews from oppressors and thereby fulfilling God's ancient promises - for land, nationhood, kingship, and blessing - Jesus died a "shameful" death (Deut. 21:24), defeated by the very political powers the Messiah was prophesied to overcome. Indeed, the Hebrew prophets did not foresee that Israel's savior would be executed as a common criminal by Gentiles (John 7:12,27,31,40-44), making Jesus' crucifixion a "stumbling block" to scripturally literate Jews (1 Cor. 1:23).''<ref>Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible.'' (McGraw-Hill, 2002) p 376-7 </ref> Skeptics have composed lists of alleged conflicts involving the Bible, perhaps none so renowned as [[Robert G. Ingersoll]]'s 61 reasons in his article [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/robert_ingersoll/inspiration_of_bible.html ''Inspiration Of Bible]. (see also [[The Skeptic's Annotated Bible]]) Many Christians believe some prophecies are left to be fulfilled in the future upon Jesus' return, labeling them as "Future Unfulfilled." Most Jews (a notable exception being [[Messianic Jews]]) reject Jesus as their Messiah because of specific yet unfulfilled prophecies.(see [[Jewish Messianism]]) ===Alleged selective interpretation=== Sometimes particular attention is directed to Jewish [[613 mitzvot|rules]] contained in the [[Old Testament]] which are not observed by Christians.<ref>[http://www.fallwell.com/selective%20quotation.html Proof that fundamentalists selectively quote the Bible]</ref> Many of the rules in question are specifically abrogated by the [[New Testament]], such as [[History of male circumcision#Male circumcision in the Greco-Roman world|circumcision]] (see the [[Council of Jerusalem]] in {{bibleref2|Acts|15)}}; and the entire Law is described by {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:24-25|31}} as a tutor which is no longer necessary, according to [[Antinomianism]]. The alleged hypocrisy is in the continued invocation of portions of the Old Testament that are considered obsolete under Christianity, particularly when those portions endorse hostility towards women and homosexuals. The counter argument is that these viewpoints are (allegedly) also endorsed in the New Testament.<ref>For instance [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-aig/aig-c040.html "What's wrong with being gay?"] at ChristianAnswers.net argues that the Old Testament prohibitions against homosexuality are renewed in the New Testament</ref> {{bibleverse||Matthew|5:17-19|31}} (see also [[Expounding of the Law#Adherence to the Law|Adherence to the Law]]) can be taken to imply that the Old Testament laws remain in place in the New Testament, while {{bibleverse||Matthew|5:38-39|31}} (see also [[Expounding of the Law#Antithesis of the Law|Antithesis of the Law]] and [[Old Testament#Christian view of the Law|Christian view of the Law]]) can be viewed as contradicting those earlier passages. Skeptics believe investigation yields many apparent contradictions in the Bible, which Christians use to argue against belief in the Bible as the absolute, inerrant Word of God. (See [[Internal consistency of the Bible]]) While consideration of the context is necessary when studying the Bible, some find the accounts of the [[Resurrection of Jesus]] within the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, difficult to reconcile. [[E.P. Sanders]] concludes that the inconsistencies make the possibility of a deliberate fraud unlikely: "A plot to foster belief in the Resurrection would probably have resulted in a more consistent story. Instead, there seems to have been a competition: 'I saw him,' 'So did I,' 'The women saw him first,' 'No, I did; they didn't see him at all,' and so on."<ref>Britannica Encyclopedia, ''Jesus Christ'', p.17 </ref> ===Mistranslation and textual corruption=== {{details|Textual criticism}} Criticisms are also sometimes raised because of contradictions arising between different English translations of the Hebrew or Greek text. Some Christian interpretations are criticized by non-Christians (and sometimes particularly by Jews){{Fact|date=January 2008}} as being based on mistranslations, or on readings found in only some manuscripts of the Bible, or in particular English [[translations of the Bible]]. Newly discovered ancient manuscripts of the Bible, such as the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]], suggest that passages such as the [[Pericope Adulteræ]], and [[Mark 16]] and [[Comma Johanneum]] originally took other forms than are present in older translations such as the [[King James Version]], or were even absent. There is also the question of whether the [[masoretic text]], which forms the basis of most modern English translations of the [[Old Testament]], is the more accurate or whether one of the translations which pre-dates the masoretic text, such as the [[Septuagint]], [[Syriac Peshitta]], and [[Samaritan Pentateuch]] is more accurate. Notable among those who concluded that the Bible contained deliberately falsehoods was [[Thomas Jefferson]]. He considered much of the new testament of the Bible to be lies. He edited his own version of the bible and omitted what he considered to be these falsehoods. He described these as "so much untruth, charlatanism and imposture". He described the "roguery of others of His disciples", and called them a "band of dupes and impostors", and described Paul as the "first corruptor of the doctrines of Jesus", and wrote of "palpable interpolations and falsifications". He also described the Book of Revelations to be "merely the ravings of a maniac, no more worthy nor capable of explanation than the incoherences of our own nightly dreams". <ref>THE WRITINGS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON: BEING HIS AUTOBIOGRAPHY, CORRESPONDENCE, REPORTS, MESSAGES, ADDRESSES, AND OTHER WRITINGS, OFFICIAL AND PRIVATE. PUBLISHED BY THE ORDER OF The JOINT COMMITTEE OF CONGRESS ON THE LIBRARY, FROM THE ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPTS, DEPOSITED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES, TABLES OF CONTENTS, AND A COPIOUS INDEX TO EACH VOLUME, AS WELL AS A GENERAL INDEX TO THE WHOLE, BY THE EDITOR H. A. WASHINGTON. VOL. VII. PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR MAURY, WASHINGTON, D. C 1854. </ref> [[Bart D. Ehrman]] makes similar claims in his book ''[[Misquoting Jesus]]''. In Chapter 7 of the book, he discusses theologically motivated alterations of the text. He argues, for example, that scribes added {{bibleref2|Luke|22:43-44}} in an attempt to counter the arguments that Jesus was not fully human and did not have a body. In Chapter 8, he argues that texts were changed in order to minimize the role of women and counter the Jews and pagans. Jewish scholars accuse Christians of translating the Bible in a dishonest way to make the text reflect Christian doctrine.<ref name="jfj"/><ref>[http://www.jewsforjudaism.org/web/faq/faq043.html Jew for Judaism]</ref> '''Virgin''': {{bibleverse||Matthew|1:22-1:23|31}} reads: "All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had said through the prophet: "The '''virgin''' will be with child and will give birth to a son, and '''they''' will call him Immanuel" — which means, "God with us." This verse is, according to Jews (and other critics of the doctrine of the Virgin Birth), a misquoting of {{bibleverse||Isaiah|7:14|31}}. Jewish translations of the verse reads: "Behold, the '''young woman''' is with child and will bear a son and '''she''' will call his name Immanuel." Moreover, it is claimed that Christians have taken this verse out of context (see [[Immanuel]] for further information).<ref name="jfj">{{PDFlink|[http://www.jewsforjudaism.org/web/pdf/EnglishHandbook.pdf English Handbook Page 34]|999&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1023309 bytes -->}}</ref> Another example is {{bibleref2|Matthew|2:23}}: "And he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophets, 'He shall be called a [[Nazarene]].'" A Jewish website[http://www.jewsforjudaism.org/][http://www.messiahtruth.com/notchristian.html] claims that "Since a Nazarene is a resident of the city of Nazareth and this city did not exist during the time period of the Jewish Bible, it is impossible to find this quotation in the Hebrew Scriptures. It was fabricated."<ref name="jfj"/>However, one common suggestion is that the New Testament verse is based on a passage relating to ''[[Nazirite]]s'', either because this was a misunderstanding common at the time, or through deliberate re-reading of the term by the early Christians. ==Miracles== {{see|Miracle|Faith healing|Exorcism}} For most Christians, the miracles represent actual historical events. Without the resurrection, Paul writes in his first letter to the Corinthians, "our preaching is useless and so is your faith." The [[Roman Catholic Church]] requires a certain number of miracles to occur before granting [[sainthood]] to a putative saint, with particularly stringent requirements in validating the miracle's authenticity. Philosopher [[David Hume]] argued against the plausability of miracles: :''1) A miracle is a violation of the known laws of nature; 2) We know these laws through repeated and constant experience; 3) The testimony of those who report miracles contradicts the operation of known scientific laws; 4) Consequently no one can rationally believe in miracles.'' Miraculous healing through prayers, often involving the "[[laying on of hands]]", has been reported but has never been scientifically verified. Reliance on [[faith healing]] can indirectly contribute to serious harm and even death<ref>{{Cite web | url= http://www.sram.org/0802/faith-healing.html | title= Inherent Dangers of Faith-Healing Studies | publisher=The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine |date=2004 | Author= Bruce L. Flamm, MD}}</ref>. == The Limbo Controversy == {{unbalanced|date=June 2008}} The Catholic Church teaches that [[baptism]] is a necessity. In the fifth century, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] [[Augustine of Hippo#Sacramental theology|concluded]] that infants who die without baptism were consigned to hell{{Fact|date=July 2008}}. By the 13th century, theologians referred to the "[[limbo]] of infants" as a place where unbaptized babies were deprived of the vision of God, but did not suffer because they did not know what they were deprived of. A Catholic burial can be denied to babies who are stillborn{{Fact|date=July 2008}}. In 2007, the 30-member International Theological Commission revisited the concept of limbo. <ref>[http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0702216.htm CNS STORY: Vatican commission: Limbo reflects 'restrictive view of salvation'<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Vatican_abolishes_Limbo</ref> However, the commission also stated that {{cquote|The commission said hopefulness was not the same as certainty about the destiny of such infants.}} ==Sectarianism== {{main|Sectarianism}} Some have argued that Christianity is undermined by the inability of Christians to agree on matters of faith and church governance, and the tendency for the content of their faith to be determined by regional or political factors. [[Schopenhauer]] sarcastically suggests: :''To the South German ecclesiastic the truth of the Catholic dogma is quite obvious, to the North German, the Protestant. If then, these convictions are based on objective reasons, the reasons must be climatic, and thrive, like plants, some only here, some only there. The convictions of those who are thus locally convinced are taken on trust and believed by the masses everywhere.''<ref name=multiple29>{{Cite book | last=Schopenhauer | first=Arthur | authorlink=Schopenhauer | title=The Essays of Arthur Schopenhauer | coauthors=trans. T. Bailey Saunders | chapterurl=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10833/10833-h/10833-h.htm#RULE4_2 | chapter=Religion: A Dialogue}}</ref> ==Christians== {{seealso|Christian evangelist scandals}} To [[Mahatma Gandhi]], the materialism of affluent Christian countries appears to contradict the claims of Jesus Christ that it is not possible to worship both [[Mammon]] and God at the same time.<ref>As quoted by [[William Rees-Mogg]] 4 April 2005 edition of the [[The Times]]. Gandhi here makes reference to a statement of Jesus: “No servant can serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be loyal to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon." (Luke 16:13) </ref> {{Quotation| I like your Christ. I do not like your Christians. Your Christians are so unlike your Christ. The materialism of affluent Christian countries appears to contradict the claims of Jesus Christ that says it's not possible to worship both Mammon and God at the same time. | Mahatma Gandhi}} [[Gaudium et Spes]] claims that the example of Christians may be a contributory factor to [[atheism]], writing, "...believers can have more than a little to do with the birth of atheism. To the extent that they neglect their own training in the faith, or teach erroneous doctrine, or are deficient in their religious, moral, or social life, they must be said to conceal rather than reveal the authentic face of God and religion".<ref>[[Gaudium et Spes]], 19</ref> David Kinnaman, president of the [[George Barna|Barna Institute]], and Gabe Lyons of the Fermi Project published a study of attitudes of 16-29 year old Americans towards Christianity. They found that about 38% of all those who were not regular churchgoers had negative impressions of Christianity, and especially evangelical Christianity, associating it with conservative political activism, hypocrisy, anti-homosexuality, and judgmentalism.<ref>About 91% of young outsiders felt Christians were anti-homosexual, 87% felt Christians were judgemental and 85% thought Christians were hypocritical.</ref> About 17% had "very bad" perceptions of Christianity.<ref>[http://www.unchristian.com/ ''unChristian: What a New Generation Really Thinks about Christianity... and Why It Matters''], David Kinnaman and Gabe Lyons, Baker Books, October 1, 2007, ISBN 0801013003</ref><ref>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2007/december/23.21.html ''Who Do People Say We Are? It doesn't hurt to listen to what non-Christians think of us.''], A Christianity Today editorial, [[Christianity Today]], December 12, 2007 </ref> Secular and religious critics have accused many Christians of being hypocritical<ref>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/april/32.70.html The Evangelical Scandal | Christianity Today | A Magazine of Evangelical Conviction<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. For instance, although marital fidelity and family values are arguably central to Christian morality, a study by the Barna Research Group has shown that divorce rates among certain Christian groups were significantly higher than for other faith groups, and much higher than the rate of divorce amongst atheists and agnostics.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/largecom/baptist_divorce.html Dallas Morning News]</ref> Tom Whiteman, a Philadelphia psychologist found that the primary reasons for Christian divorce include adultery, abuse(including substance, physical and verbal abuse), and abandonment whereas the number one reason cited for divorce in the general population was incompatibility.<ref>[http://www.christian-parents.net/marriage/M103_Reality_of_Divorce.htm Marriage 103: The Raw Reality of Divorce and its Terrible Results<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Persecution by Christians=== {{SectOR|date=January 2008}} {{Main|Persecution by Christians|Christian terrorism|Spanish Inquisition}} Individuals and groups throughout history have been persecuted by certain Christians (and Christian groups) based upon sex, sexual orientation, race, and religion (even within the bounds Christianity itself). Many of the persecutors attempt to justify their actions with particular scriptural interpretations. Some Christians have likewise been persecuted by certain other groups, whether from other denominations or non-Christians. <!-- Sources. Expand. --> ==Origins== {{seealso|Historicity of Jesus|Jesus as myth}} Author Brian Branston has argued that Christianity adopted many mythological tales and traditions into its views of [[Jesus]]. These traditions, largely from Greco-Roman religions, have parallels to the story of Jesus, according to Brian Branston.<ref>Brian Branston, ''The Lost Gods of England''</ref> === Dionysus === {{seealso|Osiris-Dionysus|Dionysus}} [[Image:H35.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dionysus]], son of Zeus, holding wine with a faun eating lionskin, portrayed by [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]].]] The story of [[Dionysus]], son of the Greek Olympian God [[Zeus]], has been seen by several writers as containing parallels to the story of Jesus. Professor Harris writes in his book ''Understanding the Bible'' that "the myth of [[Dionysus]] foreshadows some later Christian theological interpretations of Jesus' cosmic role. Although Jesus is a historical figure and Dionysus purely mythological, Dionysus's story contains events and themes, such as his divine parentage, violent death, descent into the Underworld, and subsequent resurrection to immortal life in heaven, where he sits near his father's throne, that Christians ultimately made part of Jesus' story. Like Asclepius, Heracles, Perseus, and other heroes of the Greco Roman era, Dionysus has a divine father and human mother. The only Olympian born to a mortal woman, he is also the only major deity to endure rejection, suffering, and death before ascending to heaven to join his immortal parent. The son of Zeus and Semele, a princess of Thebes, Dionysus was known as the "twice born."<ref>Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible.'' (McGraw Hill, 2002) p 361 </ref> Dionysus also parallels the life of Jesus as he and Demeter gave humanity two gifts to come into communion with the divine: grain (or bread) to sustain life and wine to make life bearable. The Athenian playwright [[Euripides]] (485-406 BCE) writes in his ''[[The Bacchae]]'': <blockquote> :''Next came the son of the virgin. Dionysus.'' :''bringing the counterpart to bread. wine'' :''and the blessings of life's flowing juices.'' :''His blood, the blood of grape, '' :''lightens the burden of our mortal misery...'' :''it is his blood we pour out'' :''to offer Thanks to the Gods. And through him.'' :''we are blessed.''<ref>Euripides, ''The Bacchae.'' (Plume Publishers, 1982.) ''Translated by Michael Cacoyannis.'' p 18 </ref> </blockquote> Professor Harris alludes that "long before Jesus linked wine and bread as part of the Christian liturgy (Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:17-20) the two tokens of divine favor were associated in the Dionysian tradition. In the ''Bacchae'' (worshippers of Bacchus, another name for Dionysus), Euripides also has the prophet Tiresias observe that Demeter and Dionysus, respectively, ''gave humanity two indispensable gifts: grain or bread to sustain life and wine to make life bearable.'' Tiresias urges his hearers to see in Dionysus's gift of wine a beverage that brings into communion with the divine.<ref name=multiple20>Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible.'' (McGraw Hill, 2002) p 362-3 </ref> :One particular wine ritual of the Dyonisian myth followers involved priests and guests. The priests would leave three empty pots in a building for all citizens to see. Pausanias states in his ''Description of Greece'', "The doors of the building are sealed by the priests themselves and by any others who may so be inclined. On the morrow they are allowed to examine the seals, and on going into the building they find the pots filled with wine."<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece: Attica and Corinth.'' (Harvard University Press, 1918.) VI, 26, 1-2 </ref> According to Professor Luther H. Martin in his ''Hellenistic Religions,'' this wine tradition and that of the emblem ''liknon'', or the process of purifying wheat from chaff via agency of the spirit, was adopted by the earliest Christians. :"This Dionysian wine ritual was incorporated into Christian imagery by the Gospel of John. According to this gospel, the first public act of Jesus was to transform jars of water into wine- the typical Dionysian epiphany miracle. By employing this well-known Dionysian convention, the Gospel at its outset establishes the presence of Jesus as a divine epiphany...the Dionysian liknon represented the possibility of an ecstatic purification by the breath of the spirit as initiates transcended the conditions of everydayness. This image of separating wheat from the chaff through the agency of spirit was also employed by the early Christians (Matt 3:11-12; Luke 3:16-17)."<ref>Luther H. Martin, ''Hellenistic Religions: An Introduction.'' (Oxford University Press, 1987.) P 95-6 </ref> Christian apologists claim the Messianic prophecies which allegedly predicted Jesus' life were around before Dionysus legends. They state that the [[Messianic prophecies]] were recorded before the legends of Dionysus and are contained in the [[Old Testament]]. Some would point out the differences between Jesus and Dionysus as well.<ref>Holding, J.P. [http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html "Dealing Down Dionysus: Did The Greek God of Wine Influence Christian Beliefs?"] ''Tekton''. Retrieved July 1, 2007.</ref> ===Mithras=== {{main|Mithraism#Christianity and Mithraism}} Comparisons are also made with the tale of [[Mithras]], whose cult existed during the period of the origin of Christianity.{{Fact|date=July 2007}} ===Responses=== A classic response to this criticism is that of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] and subsequently [[C. S. Lewis]], who considered that just because a story was a myth does not preclude it from also having taken place as a historical event. Pagan myths can be seen as prefiguring the life and death of Christ, but without detracting from their historical and religious significance. Lewis even went so far as to suggest that the existence of these Pagan myths lend Christianity credibility, as their existence might reflect God's hidden watch over all human history and his influence on the [[collective subconscious]] in the form of "good dreams" and premonitions. Lewis states that he would be far more doubtful of the reality of a supposed historical event of the magnitude of the Atonement if humanity had neglected to anticipate it in any way.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} == See also == {{Wikiquote}} * [[Anti-Catholicism]] * [[Anti-clericalism]] * [[Anti-Protestantism]] * [[Science and the Bible]] * [[Biblical cosmology]] * [[Biblical literalism]] * [[Internal consistency of the Bible]] * [[Anti-Christian discrimination]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} * Joseph McCabe, "A Rationalist Encyclopaedia: A book of reference on religion, philosophy, ethics and science," Gryphon Books (1971). [http://www.christianism.com/] <!-- Dead note "hymen": --> == Further reading == ;Skeptical of Christianity * ''The Antichrist'', by [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] * ''Letter to a Christian Nation'', by Sam Harris * ''The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God'', by Carl Sagan * ''From Jesus to Christianity'', by Michael L White * ''Where God and Science Meet [Three Volumes]: How Brain and Evolutionary Studies Alter Our Understanding of Religion'', by Patrick McNamara * ''Russell on Religion'', by Louis Greenspan (Includes most all of Russell's essays on religion) * ''Breaking the Spell'', by Daniel Dennett * ''Einstein and Religion'', by Max Jammer * ''Out of my later years and the World as I see it'', by Albert Einstein * ''Understanding the Bible'', by Stephen L Harris * ''Future of an illusion'', by [[Sigmund Freud]] * ''Civilization and its discontents'', by [[Sigmund Freud]] * ''Why I am not a Christian and other essays'', by Bertrand Russell * ''Death and Afterlife, Perspectives of World Religions'', by Hiroshi Obayashi * ''Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why'', by Bart Ehrman * ''The Birth of Christianity : Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus'', by John Dominic Crossan * ''Why I Rejected Christianity: A Former Apologist Explains'', by John W. Loftus ;Defending Christianity * ''The Dawkins Letters'', by David Robertson * ''Mere Christianity'', by C.S. Lewis * ''Jesus Among Other Gods'', by Ravi Zacharias * ''Orthodoxy'', by G.K. Chesterton * ''The Case for Christ'', by Lee Strobel ==External links== * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ From Jesus to Christ,] an objective study on Jesus of Nazareth from professors at Harvard, Yale, Brown, Stanford, Princeton, and Duke. * [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html Professor James Tabor's educational site on the Jewish Roman world of Jesus] * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/ PBS Special: Apocalypse!] Contains Jesus' apocalyptic promises along with those of Saint Paul's. * [http://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/tx/romansources.htm Roman Sources on the Jews and Judaism, 1 BCE-110 CE] *[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N#701 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament: Unhistorical Character of the Gospels] * [http://www.remember.org/History.root.classical.html Christian Anti-Semitism] * [http://www.answering-christianity.com/jesus_in_islam.htm Answering Christianity from an Islamic perspective] ;Skeptical * [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter3.html The Warfare of Science With Theology] by Andrew White * [http://skepticsannotatedbible.com/contra/by_name.html Contradictions in the Bible] from the [http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ Skeptic's Annotated Bible] * [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/paul_carlson/nt_contradictions.html New Testament contradictions] by Paul Carlson ;Apologetic * [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/index.html Virtual Office] of [[William Lane Craig]] from [[Leadership University (web portal)]] * [http://www.probe.org Probe Ministries] * [http://www.carm.org Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry] * [http://answering-islam.org.uk/index.html Answers to common objections from Muslims about Christianity] {{Christianityfooter}} {{Criticism of religion}} [[Category:Criticism of religion|Christianity]] [[Category:Anti-Christianity]] [[Category:Christianity-related controversies]] [[fr:Critique du christianisme]] [[nl:Kritiek op het christendom]] [[fi:Kristinuskon kritiikki]] [[zh:对基督教的批评]]