Culture
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2008-07-16T21:47:50Z
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'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,")<ref>Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=culture Online Etymology Dictionary].</ref> generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another"<ref>Findley, Carther Vaughn and John Alexander Rothney (2006). ''Twentieth-century World.'' Sixth edition, p. 14. ISBN 978-0618522637.</ref>
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including [[arts]], beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire society."<ref>Williams, Raymond. ''Keywords'', "Culture"</ref> As such, it includes codes of [[manners]], [[dress]], [[language]], [[religion]], [[ritual]]s, norms of behavior such as law and morality, and systems of belief as well as the art.
[[Cultural anthropology|Cultural anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity and activities to classify, codify and communicate their experiences materially and [[symbol]]ically. Scholars have long viewed this capacity as a defining feature of humans (although some [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture such as learned tool making and use among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom).<ref>[[Jane Goodall|Goodall, J.]] 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>
[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Farhang'' culture has always been the focal point of Iranian [[civilization]]. Painting of Persian women musicians from ''[[Hasht Behesht|Hasht-Behesht Palace]]'' ("Palace of the 8 heavens.")]]
[[Image:Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. 001.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[art]].]]
==Culture concept(s)==
===Culture and anthropology===
[[Image:Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Nineteeth century anthropologist [[Edward Tylor]] was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term [[culture]] in anthropology.]]
Culture is manifested in human artifacts and activities such as music, literature, lifestyle, food, painting and sculpture, theater and film.<ref name="Williams">[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8.</ref> Although some scholars identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]),<ref>John Berger, Peter Smith Pub. Inc., (1971) ''Ways of Seeing''</ref> anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For them, culture thus includes art, science, as well as moral systems.
Various definitions of culture reflect differing theories for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. Writing from the perspective of [[social anthropology]] in the [[UK]], Tylor in 1874 described culture in the following way: "Culture or [[civilization]], taken in its wide [[ethnographic]] sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."<ref>Tylor, E.B. 1874. ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom''.</ref>'''
More recently, the United Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[Unesco]]) (2002) described culture as follows: "... culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to [[art]] and [[literature]], [[lifestyles]], ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs".<ref>UNESCO. 2002. [http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml] Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity.</ref>
While these two definitions cover a range of meaning, they do not exhaust the many uses of the term "culture." In 1952, [[Alfred Kroeber]] and [[Clyde Kluckhohn]] compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions''.<ref>Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.''</ref>
These definitions, and many others, provide a catalog of the elements of culture. The items cataloged (e.g., a law, a stone tool, a marriage) each have an existence and life-line of their own. They come into space-time at one set of coordinates and go out of it another. While here, they change, so that one may speak of the evolution of the law or the tool.
A culture, then, is by definition at least, a set of cultural objects. Anthropologist [[Leslie White]] asked: "What sort of objects are they? Are they physical objects? Mental objects? Both? Metaphors? Symbols? Reifications?" In ''Science of Culture'' (1949), he concluded that they are objects "''[[sui generis]]''"; that is, of their own kind. In trying to define that kind, he hit upon a previously unrealized aspect of symbolization, which he called "the symbolate"—an object created by the act of symbolization. He thus defined culture as "symbolates understood in an extra-somatic context."<ref>White, L. 1949. ''The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.''</ref> The key to this definition is the discovery of the symbolate.
===Culture as civilization===
[[Image:Chichen-Itza El Castillo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The famous "El Castillo" (The castle), formally named "Temple of Kukulcan", in the archeological city of Chichén-Itzá, in the state of Yucatán, Mexico.]]
Many people have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world.”<ref name=anarchy>Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html ''Culture and Anarchy.'']</ref> Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "...culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world."<ref name=anarchy />
In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]],<ref>Bakhtin 1981, p.4</ref> to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].
From the 19th century onwards, some social [[critics]] have accepted this contrast between the highest and lowest culture, but have stressed the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. On this account, [[folk music]] (as produced by working-class people) honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays [[Indigenous peoples]] as '[[noble savage]]s' living [[authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]] unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly-stratified [[capitalism|capitalist]] systems of [[Western culture|the West]].
Today most social scientists reject the [[monadic]] conception of culture, and the opposition of culture to [[nature (innate)|nature]]. They recognize non-[[élite]]s as just as cultured as élites (and non-Westerners as just as civilized)—simply regarding them as just cultured in a different way.
Williams<ref>Williams (1983), p.90. Cited in Shuker, Roy (1994). ''Understanding Popular Music'', p.5. ISBN 0-415-10723-7.</ref> argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three:
*"a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development"
*"a particular way of life, whether of a people, period, or a group"
*"the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity".
===Culture as worldview===
During the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]], scholars in [[Germany]], especially those concerned with [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements — such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] — developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "[[world view|worldview]]." In this mode of thought, a distinct and incommensurable worldview characterizes each ethnic group. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures.
By the late 19th century, [[anthropology|anthropologists]] had adopted and adapted the term ''culture'' to a broader definition that they could apply to a wider variety of societies. Attentive to the theory of [[evolution]], anthropologists such as [[Franz Boas]] assumed that all human beings evolved equally, and that the fact that all humans have cultures must in some way result from human evolution. They also showed some reluctance to use biological evolution to explain differences between specific cultures — an approach that either exemplified a form of, or segment of society ''vis a vis'' other segments and the society as a whole, they often reveal processes of [[domination]] and [[resistance movement|resistance]].
In the 1950s, [[subcultures]] — groups with distinctive characteristics within a larger culture — began to be the subject of study by sociologists. The 20th century also saw the popularization of the idea of [[corporate culture]] — distinct and malleable within the context of an employing [[organization]] or a [[office|workplace]].
===Culture as symbols===
[[Image:Chen Hongshou, leaf album painting.jpg|thumb|200px|An album leaf painting by [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] artist [[Chen Hongshou]] (1598–1652) depicting nature scenes. The [[China|Chinese]] viewed [[Chinese painting|painting]] as a key element of high culture.]]
The symbolic view of culture, the legacy of Clifford Geertz (1973) and Victor Turner (1967), holds symbols to be both the practices of social actors and the context that gives such practices meaning. Anthony P. Cohen (1985) writes of the "symbolic gloss" which allows social actors to use common symbols to communicate and understand each other while still imbuing these symbols with personal significance and meanings.<ref>Cohen, A. 1985. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.''</ref> Symbols provide the limits of cultured thought. Members of a culture rely on these symbols to frame their thoughts and expressions in intelligible terms. In short, symbols make culture possible, reproducible and readable. They are the "webs of significance" in Weber's sense that, to quote [[Pierre Bourdieu]] (1977), "give regularity, unity and systematics to the practices of a group."<ref>Bourdieu, P. 1977. ''Outline of a Theory of Practice.''</ref> Thus, for example:
*''"Stop, in the name of the law!"''—Stock phrase uttered to the [[antagonist]]s by the [[sheriff]] or [[marshal]] in 20th century [[American Old West]]ern [[film]]s
*''Law and order''—[[stock phrase]] in the United States
*''Peace and order''—stock phrase in the Philippines
*''Ordnung muss sein / Order must be'' — stock phrase in the Germany, Austria
==Cultures within a society==
Large societies often have [[subculture]]s, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and [[beliefs]] that differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are a part. The subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[ethnicity]], [[social class|class]], or [[gender]]. The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be [[aesthetic]], [[religious]], [[wikt:occupation|occupational]], [[political]], [[sexual]], or a combination of these factors.
In dealing with immigrant groups and their cultures, there are various approaches:
* [[Leitkultur]] (core culture): A model developed in Germany by [[Bassam Tibi]]. The idea is that minorities can have an identity of their own, but they should at least support the core concepts of the culture on which the society is based.
* [[Melting Pot]]: In the [[United States]], the traditional view has been one of a melting pot where all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention.
* [[Monoculturalism]]: In some European states, culture is very closely linked to [[nationalism]], thus government policy is to assimilate immigrants, although recent increases in migration have led many European states to experiment with forms of multiculturalism.
* [[Multiculturalism]]: A policy that immigrants and others should preserve their cultures with the different cultures interacting peacefully within one nation.
The way nation states treat immigrant cultures rarely falls neatly into one or another of the above approaches. The degree of difference with the host culture (i.e., "foreignness"), the number of immigrants, attitudes of the resident population, the type of government policies that are enacted, and the effectiveness of those policies all make it difficult to generalize about the effects. Similarly with other subcultures within a society, attitudes of the mainstream population and communications between various cultural groups play a major role in determining outcomes. The study of cultures within a society is complex and research must take into account a myriad of variables.
==Cultures by region==
{{main|Culture by region}}
Regional cultures of the world occur both by [[nation]] and [[ethnic group]] and more broadly, by larger regional variations. Similarities in culture often occur in geographically nearby peoples. Many regional cultures have been influenced by contact with others, such as by [[colonization]], [[trade]], [[Human migration|migration]], [[mass media]], and [[religion]]. Culture is [[dynamic]] and changes over time. I doing so, cultures absorb external influences and adjust to changing environments and [[technology|technologies]]. Thus, culture is dependent on [[communication]]. Local cultures change rapidly with new communications and [[transportation]] technologies that allow for greater movement of people and ideas between cultures.<ref>Devyani Mani [http://www.uncrd.or.jp/hs/doc/02a_mani_culture.pdf "Culture as a Key Element of Human Security"]. United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD). Retrieved on: [[July 15]], [[2008]]</ref>
==Belief systems==
{{Main| Religion}}
[[Image:Angkor wat temple.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The main entrance to the [[Angkor Wat]] temple proper, seen from the eastern end of the [[Architecture of Cambodia#Naga|Naga causeway]]. Founded in the 12th century, the temple appears today on the flag of Cambodia.]]
Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin ''religare,'' meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion'' defines religion in the following way:
<blockquote>... an institution with a recognized body of communicants who gather together regularly for worship, and accept a set of doctrines offering some means of relating the individual to what is taken to be the ultimate nature of reality.<ref>Reese, W.L. 1980. ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought,'' page 488.</ref></blockquote>
Religion often codifies behavior, such as with the [[Ten Commandments]] of [[Christianity]] or the [[The Five Precepts|five precepts]] of [[Buddhism]]. Sometimes it is involved with government, as in a [[theocracy]]. It also influences arts.
[[Western culture]] spread from Europe most strongly to Australia, Canada, and the United States. It is influenced by [[ancient Greece]], [[ancient Rome]] and [[Christianity]]. Western culture tends to be more individualistic than non-Western cultures. It also sees man, god, and nature or the universe more separately than non-Western cultures. It is marked by economic wealth, literacy, and technological advancement, although these traits are not exclusive to it. {{Fact|date=July 2008}}
===Abrahamic religions===
Judaism is one of the first, recorded [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths and one of the oldest religious [[traditions]] still practiced today. The values and history of the Jewish people are a major part of the foundation of other [[Abrahamic religion]]s such as [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], as well as the [[Bahá'í Faith]]. However, while sharing a heritage from [[Abraham]] each has distinct arts (visual and performance arts and the like.) Of course some of these are regional influences among the nations the religions are present in, but there are some norms or forms of cultural expression distinctly emphasized by the religions.
Christianity has been important to European and New World cultures for at least the last 500 to 1,700 years. Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St. [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Erasmus]] and Christian [[Cathedral]]s have been noted as architectural wonders like [[Notre Dame de Paris]], [[Wells Cathedral]], and [[Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral]].
Islam has had influence over much of the North African, Middle and Far East regions for almost 1,500 years, sometimes mixed with other religions. For example, Islam's influence can be seen in diverse philosophies such as [[Ibn Bajjah]], [[Ibn Tufail]], [[Ibn Khaldun]], and [[Averroes]] as well as poetic stories and literature like [[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]], [[Layla and Majnun|The Madman of Layla]], [[The Conference of the Birds]], and the [[Masnavi]] in addition to art and architecture such as the [[Umayyad Mosque]], [[Dome of the Rock]], [[Faisal Mosque]], and the many styles of [[Arabesque]]. Judaism and the Bahá'í faiths are usually minority religions among the nations but still have made distinctive contributions to the cultures of the nations and regions.
The mainstream [[anthropological]] view of ‘culture’ implies that most people experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' ''Anthropology Today'' Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007</ref>
===Eastern religion and philosophy===
[[Image:Agni god of fire.jpg|left|110px|thumb|[[Agni]], [[Hindu]] fire god.]]
{{main|Eastern philosophy|Eastern religion}}
Philosophy and religion are often closely interwoven in Eastern thought. Many Asian religious and philosophical traditions originated in India and China and spread across Asia through [[cultural diffusion]] and the migration of peoples. [[Hinduism]] is the wellspring of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] branch of which spread north and eastwards from India into Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan, and Korea and south from China into Vietnam. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism spread throughout [[Southeast Asia]], including Sri Lanka, parts of southwest China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand.
[[Indian philosophy]] includes [[Hindu philosophy]]. Both contain elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, [[Cārvāka]], preached the enjoyment of material world. [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], both of which originated in China have had pervasive influence on both religious and philosophical traditions, as well as [[Public administration|statecraft]] and the arts throughout Asia. [[Sikhism]], founded in India during the 16th and 17th centuries, is a [[monotheistic]] religion with a belief in one, universal, non-[[anthropomorphic]] God.
During the 20th century, in the two most populous countries of Asia, two dramatically different political philosophies took shape. [[Gandhi]] gave a new meaning to [[Ahimsa]], a core belief of both Hinduism and [[Jainism]], and redefined the concepts of [[nonviolence]] and [[nonresistance]] far beyond the confines of India. During the same period, [[Mao Zedong]]’s [[Communism|communist]] [[Maoism|philosophy]] became a powerful secular belief system in China. Increasingly Christianity is gaining a foothold in Chinese culture, developing heretofore unforeseen changes in both Christianity and Chinese culture.
===Folk religions===
{{Main|Folk religion}}
Folk religions practiced by tribal groups are common in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Their influence can be considerable; may pervade the culture and even become the state religion, as with [[Shintō]]. Like the other major religions, folk religion answers human needs for reassurance in times of trouble, healing, averting misfortune, and providing [[rituals]] that address the major passages and transitions in human life.
===The "American Dream"===
The [[American Dream]] is a belief, held by many in the United States, that through hard work, courage, and self-determination, regardless of [[social class]], a person can [[social mobility|gain a better life]].<ref>Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream,'' p. 1.</ref> This notion is rooted in the belief that the United States is a "[[city upon a hill]], a light unto the nations,"<ref>[[Ronald Reagan]]. [http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm "Final Radio Address to the Nation"].</ref> which were values held by many early European settlers and maintained by subsequent generations.
===Marriage===
Religion often influences [[Religious aspects of marriage|marriage]] and practices.
Marriage occurs in most cultures, though specific customs vary widely. Marriage is difficult to define cross-culturally because cultures define family, love, parenthood, gender roles, etc., differently. Cross-culturally, one's motivation to get married and expectations of it, therefore, vary widely. In some cultures, marriages are conducted very much like business transactions, in others they are deeply sentimental.
==Cultural studies==
[[Cultural studies]] developed in the late 20th century, in part through the re-introduction of [[Marxist]] thought into [[sociology]], and in part through the [[articulation (sociology)|articulation]] of [[sociology]] and other academic disciplines such as [[literary criticism]]. This movement aimed to focus on the analysis of subcultures in [[capitalism|capitalist]] societies. Following the non-anthropological tradition, [[cultural studies]] generally focus on the study of consumption goods (such as [[fashion]], [[art]], and [[literature]]). Because the 18th- and 19th-century distinction between "high" and "low" culture seems inappropriate to apply to the mass-produced and mass-marketed consumption goods which cultural studies analyses, these scholars refer instead to "popular culture".
==Cultural change==
[[Image:Indig2.jpg|thumb|300px|A 19th century engraving showing [[Australian]] "[[Indigenous Australians|natives]]" opposing the arrival of [[Captain James Cook]] in 1770.]]
Cultures, by [[predisposition]], both embrace and resist [[change]], depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s. Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change.
Three kinds of influence cause both change and resistance to it:
#forces at work within a society
#contact between societies
#changes in the natural environment.<ref>O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_2.htm "Processes of Change"].</ref>
Contact between societies produce different types of changes in those societies. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, [[hamburger]]s, mundane in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China. "Stimulus diffusion" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. "Direct Borrowing" on the other hand tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. [[Diffusion of innovations]] theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products. <ref>O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_2.htm "Processes of Change"].</ref>
[[Acculturation]] has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such has happened to certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of [[colonization]]. Related processes on an individual level include [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and [[transculturation]].
[[Image:Gorskii_04412u.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sense of time is highly dependent on culture. This photograph was taken in 1913 but can be difficult to date for a Western viewer, due to the absence of cultural cues.]]
[[Cultural invention]] has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period", driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the [[World population|human population]] explosion, among other factors.
==See also==
{{portal}}
* [[Counterculture]]
* [[Cross-cultural communication]] - [[Intercultural competence]]
* [[Cultural bias]] - [[Cultural imperialism]] - [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Cultural evolution]]
* [[Cultural dissonance]]
* [[Cultural Institutions Studies]]
* [[Cultural universals]]
* [[Culture theory]]
* [[Culture war]]
* [[Emotions and Culture]]
* [[List of basic culture topics]]
* [[Urban culture]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*{{cite book|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |origyear= 2000 |series= INU societal research |volume= Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 |pages= }}
* Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html ''Culture and Anarchy.''] New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.
*[[Bakhtin]], M. M. (1981) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays]''. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06445-6.
* Barzilai, Gad. 2003. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1
* Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. ''Outline of a Theory of Practice.'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29164-4
* Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.'' Routledge: New York,
* Dawkiins, R. 1982. ''[[The Extended Phenotype|The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene.]]'' Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-19-288051-2
* Findley & Rothney. ''Twentieth-Century World'' (Houghton Mifflin, 1986)
* Forsberg, A. [http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~aforsber/ccsf/culture_defined.html Definitions of culture] [[CCSF]] Cultural Geography course notes. Retrieved: 2006-06-29.
* Geertz, Clifford. 1973. ''The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays''. New York. ISBN 978-0-465-09719-7.
:— 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example", ''American Anthropologist'', Vol. 59, No. 1.
* Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.'' Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-11649-8
* Hoult, T. F., ed. 1969. ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology''. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams & Co.
* Jary, D. and J. Jary. 1991. ''The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology.'' New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-271543-7
* Keiser, R. Lincoln 1969. ''The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets''. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-080361-1.
* Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.'' Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum
* Kim, Uichol (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), ''Handbook of culture and psychology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press
* Middleton, R. 1990. ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-15275-9.
* O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm Cultural Anthropology Tutorials], Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.
* [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan, Ronald]]. [http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm "Final Radio Address to the Nation"], [[January 14]], [[1989]]. Retrieved [[June 3]], [[2006]].
* Reese, W.L. 1980. ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.'' New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press.
* Rhoads, Kelton. 2006. [http://www.workingpsychology.com/download_folder/Culture_And_Influence.pdf ''The Culture Variable in the Influence Equation.'']
* Tylor, E.B. 1974. ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom.'' New York: Gordon Press. First published in 1871. ISBN 978-0-87968-091-6
* UNESCO. 2002. [http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity], issued on [[International Mother Language Day]], [[February 21]], [[2002]]. Retrieved: 2006-06-23.
* White, L. 1949. ''The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.'' New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
* Wilson, Edward O. (1998). ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]].'' Vintage: New York. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.
* Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 ''[http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline A New Kind of Science].'' Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57955-008-0
</div>
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Culture}}
* [http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/home-en.asp Centre for Intercultural Learning]
* [http://defineculture.com Define Culture] A compilation of over 100+ user submitted definitions of culture from around the globe.
* [http://courses.ed.asu.edu/margolis/spf301/definitions_of_culture.html Detailed article on defining culture]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-73 Dictionary of the History of Ideas] "culture" and "civilization" in modern times
* [http://global-culture.org/ Global Culture] Essays on global issues and their impact on culture
* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/299pare.htm Reflections on the Politics of Culture] by [[Michael Parenti]]
* [http://www.wsu.edu/gened/learn-modules/top_culture/culture-index.html What is Culture? - Washington State University]
{{Template group
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{{Human}}
{{Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights}}
{{Human rights}}
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[[Category:Culture| ]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Concepts (nationalism studies)]]
{{Link FA|id}}
[[ar:ثقافة]]
[[an:Cultura]]
[[ast:Cultura]]
[[ay:Yati]]
[[az:Mədəniyyət]]
[[bn:সংস্কৃতি]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bûn-hoà]]
[[be:Культура]]
[[be-x-old:Культура]]
[[bs:Kultura]]
[[bg:Култура]]
[[ca:Cultura]]
[[cv:Этеплĕх]]
[[ceb:Kultura]]
[[cs:Kultura (sociologie)]]
[[ch:Kuttura]]
[[cy:Diwylliant]]
[[da:Kultur]]
[[de:Kultur]]
[[dv:ސަގާފަތު]]
[[et:Kultuur]]
[[el:Πολιτισμός]]
[[es:Cultura]]
[[eo:Kulturo]]
[[eu:Kultura]]
[[fa:فرهنگ]]
[[ext:Curtura]]
[[fr:Culture]]
[[fy:Kultuer]]
[[fur:Culture]]
[[ga:Cultúr]]
[[gl:Cultura]]
[[hak:Vùn-fa]]
[[ko:문화]]
[[hy:Մշակույթ]]
[[hi:संस्कृति]]
[[hr:Kultura]]
[[io:Kulturo]]
[[id:Budaya]]
[[ia:Cultura]]
[[os:Культурæ]]
[[is:Menning]]
[[it:Cultura]]
[[he:תרבות]]
[[jv:Budaya]]
[[ka:კულტურა]]
[[csb:Kùltura]]
[[ht:Kilti]]
[[ku:Çand]]
[[lad:Kultura]]
[[lv:Kultūra]]
[[lt:Kultūra]]
[[jbo:kulnu]]
[[hu:Kultúra]]
[[mk:Култура]]
[[ml:സംസ്കാരം]]
[[mt:Kultura]]
[[ms:Budaya]]
[[nah:Cultura]]
[[nl:Cultuur]]
[[new:संस्कृति]]
[[ja:文化]]
[[no:Kultur]]
[[nn:Kultur]]
[[nov:Kulture]]
[[ng:Hastangi]]
[[uz:Madaniyat]]
[[pap:Kultura]]
[[nds:Kultur]]
[[pl:Kultura]]
[[pt:Cultura]]
[[ro:Cultură]]
[[qu:Kawsay saphi]]
[[ru:Культура]]
[[sq:Kultura]]
[[scn:Cultura]]
[[si:සංස්කෘතිය]]
[[simple:Culture]]
[[ss:Inhlonipho]]
[[sk:Kultúra (spoločenské vedy)]]
[[sl:Kultura]]
[[sr:Култура]]
[[sh:Kultura]]
[[stq:Kultuur]]
[[su:Budaya]]
[[fi:Kulttuuri]]
[[sv:Kultur]]
[[tl:Kultura]]
[[ta:பண்பாடு]]
[[tt:Mädäniät]]
[[th:วัฒนธรรม]]
[[vi:Văn hóa]]
[[tg:Маданият]]
[[tr:Kültürler]]
[[uk:Культура]]
[[ur:ثقافت]]
[[yi:קולטור]]
[[zh-yue:文化]]
[[diq:Portal:Zagon]]
[[bat-smg:Koltūra]]
[[zh:文化]]