Culture of Mongolia
495256
221476847
2008-06-24T17:50:44Z
G8briel
7303547
/* Customs and Superstitions */
[[Image:Mongolcavepaintings.jpg|thumb|Cave paintings from the Khoud Tsenker region]]
'''Mongolian Culture''' has been heavily influenced by the [[Mongols|Mongol]] [[Nomads|nomadic]] way of life. Other important influences are from [[Tibet]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]], and from [[China]]. In the 20th century, [[Russia]]n and, via Russia, [[Europe]]an culture have had a strong effect on [[Mongolia]]. Not only [[Genghis Khan]] but also the [[nomad|nomadic peoples]] have had an influence on Mongolian fine arts.<ref>{{cite web
|author=K. Youso
|year=1995
|url=http://www.asianart.com/mongolia/intro.html
|title=Introduction to the Mongolian Exhibition
|publisher=asianart.com
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref>
==Traditional values==
Among the topics that are mentioned from the oldest works of Mongolian literature to modern soft pop songs are love for parents and homesickness, a longing for the place where one grew up. Horses have always played an important role in daily life as well as in the arts. Hospitality is so important in the steppes that it is traditionally taken for granted. Mongolians have an affinity for heroes, and the Mongolian word for hero, ''baatar'', appears frequently in personal names, and even in the name of Mongolia's capital, [[Ulaanbaatar]].
==Ger==
''Ger'' is the [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] word for [[yurt]], and yurts are part of the Mongolian national identity. The Secret History of the Mongols mentions [[Genghis Khan]] as the leader of all peoples who live in felt tents<ref>Erich Haenisch, ''Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen'', Leipzig 1948, p. 91 (= section 202, after Jamukha's death)</ref>, and even today a large share of Mongolia's population lives in yurts, even in Ulaan Bator. In Mongolian, ''ger'' also means home, and a number of other words are derived from this [[word stem]]. For example, ''gerlekh'' means to marry.
==Religion==
In the 17th century, [[Tibetan Buddhism]], or lamaism, became the dominant religion in Mongolia. Traditional [[Shamanism]] was, except in some remote regions, suppressed and marginalized. On the other hand, a number of shamanic practices, like [[ovoo]] worshiping, were incorporated into lamaist liturgy. Lamaism has often been accused of low morality and held responsible for being the main cause for Mongolia's backwardness by outside observers in the late 19th/ early 20th century, on the other hand the role of the Buddhist church was generally unquestioned by the Mongolian population.
Tibetan Buddhism is a ritualistic religion with a large number of gods and goddesses. This inspired the creation of religious objects including images in painting and sculptures.<ref>{{cite web
|author=Terese Tse Bartholomew
|year=1995
|url=http://www.asianart.com/mongolia/introduct.html
|title=Introduction to the Art of Mongolia
|publisher=asianart
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref>
After the [[Stalinist purges in Mongolia|Stalinist purges]] in the 1930s, both Tibetan Buddhism and shamanism were virtually outlawed in the [[Mongolian People's Republic]]. In [[Inner Mongolia]], traditional religion was heavily affected by the [[Cultural Revolution]].<ref>Rudolf Kaschewsky, ''Die Religion der Mongolen'', in Michael Weiers (editor), ''Die Mongolen, Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und Kultur'', Darmstadt 1968, p. 87-123</ref> Since the 1990s, a number of Christian sects are trying to gain a foothold in Mongolia. There are also about 4% Muslim Mongolians.
==Customs and Superstitions==
Mongolians traditionally were afraid of misfortunes and believe in a variety of good and bad omens. Misfortune might be attracted by talking about negative things, or by persons that are often talked about. They might also be sent by some malicious shaman or enraged by breaking some taboo, like stepping on a yurt's threshold, desecrating waters or mountains, etc.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} The most endangered family members were children, and that's why they would sometimes be given [[Mongolian name|non-names]] like ''Nergui'' ({{lang-mn|without name}}) or ''Enebish'' ({{lang-mn|not this one}}), or boys would be dressed up as girls.<ref name = "Geburt">Slawoj Szynkiewicz, ''Geburt, Hochzeit, Tod - Der menschliche Lebenszyklus im Brauchtum der Mongolen'', in Walther Heissig (editor), ''Die Mongolen'' (exhibition catalogue), Innsbruck 1989, p. 196ff</ref> Before going out at night, young children's foreheads are sometimes painted with charcoal or soot in order to deceive evil spirits that this is not a child but a rabbit with black hair on the forehead.
When passing [[ovoo]]s on a journey, they are often circumvented, and some sweets or the like are sacrificed, in order to have a further safe trip. Certain ovoos, especially those on high mountains, are also sacrificed to in order to obtain good weather, ward off misfortune and the like.
For a child, the first big celebration is the first haircut, usually at an age between three and five.<ref name="Geburt"/> Birthdays were not celebrated in the old times, but these days, birthday parties are popular. Wedding ceremonies traditionally include the hand-over of a new [[yurt|ger]] to the marrying couple. Deceased relatives were usually put to rest in the open, where the corpses would be eaten by animals and birds. Nowadays, corpses are usually buried.<ref name="Geburt"/>
==Festivities==
The most important public festivals are the [[Naadam]]s ({{lang-mn|games}}). The biggest one is held each year on July 11th-13th in [[Ulaanbaatar]], but there are also smaller ones on [[aimags of Mongolia|aimag]] and [[sums of Mongolia|sum]] levels. A naadam involves [[horse race]]s, [[wrestling]], and [[archery]] competitions.
For families, the most important festival is [[Tsagaan Sar]] ({{lang-mn|white month or white moon}}), which is roughly equivalent to [[Chinese New Year]] and usually falls into January or February. Family members and friends visit each other, exchange presents - very popular presents for all opportunities are [[khadag]]s - and eat huge quantities of [[buuz]].
==Literature==
The oldest completely passed down work of Mongolian literature is probably also the most well-known abroad: [[The Secret History of the Mongols]]. It does, however, contain passages of older poetry. Otherwise, few examples of Mongolian literature from the time of the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol empire]] have come down in written form: fragments of a song about the mother and the area where one grew up were found in a soldier's grave at the [[Volga river]] in 1930, 25 manuscript and block print fragments were found in [[Turfan]] in 1902/03, [[Pyotr Kozlov]] brought some fragments from [[Khara-Khoto]] in 1909.<ref>Walther Heissig, ''Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte'', München 1978, p.270 ff</ref>
Other pieces of literature have long been orally traded and typically consist of [[alliterative verse]]s. They include the proverbs attributed to [[Genghis Khan]], and the epics around the Khan's life, or the one about his two white horses. Other well-known epics deal with [[Epic of King Gesar|Geser Khan]]. Famous [[Oirad]] epics are [[Jangar]], History of the four Oirad's Victory over the Mongols, Khan Kharangui, Bum Erdene, etc.
Beginning from the 17th century, a number of chronicles have been preserved. They also contain long alliterative passages. Notable examples are the Altan Tovch by [[Luvsandanzan]] and [[Altan Tobchi|another anonymous work of the same title]], Sagang Sechen's [[Erdeniin Tobchi|Erdeniin Tovch]], Lomi's History of the [[Borjigin]] clan (''Mongol Borjigin ovgiin tüükh''), and many more.
Already at the time of the Mongol empire, samples of Buddhist and [[India]]n literature became known in Mongolia. Another wave of translations of Indian/Tibetan texts came with Mongolia's conversion to Tibetan Buddhism in the late 16th/ early 17th centuries. Beginning in the 1650s, copies of religious texts like the [[Kanjur]] and [[Tengyur|Tanjur]] and also of epics like Geser Khan began to be appear as [[Woodblock printing|block prints]]. These prints were mainly produced in [[Beijing]], but also in some Mongolian monasteries.
In Mongolia's time under the [[Qing dynasty]], a number of Chinese novels were translated into Mongolian. At the same time, social discontent and an awakening Mongol nationalism lead to the creation of critical works like [[Vanchinbalyn Injinash|Injanash]]'s historical novel ''Blue Chronicle'' or the stories about "Crazy" Shagdar.<ref>Walther Heissig, ''Mongolische Literatur'', in Michael Weiers (editor), ''Die Mongolen, Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und Kultur'', Darmstadt 1986, p. 70-85</ref>
Beginning with the works of [[Tseveen Jamsrano]] and other [[Buryats]] in the 1910s, many important works of Russian and European literature, or at least those that were not politically incorrect, were translated into Mongolian in the 20th century. {{Fact|date=December 2007}}
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}} <!--- insert info on modern Mongolian literature here-->
Religious theatre plays about the Tibetan [[hermit]] [[Milarepa]] were already performed in the 18th and 19th centuries. The oldest Mongolian drama known today, "Moon cuckoo" (''Saran khökhöö'') was created by [[Danzanravjaa]] around 1831. The play got lost in the early 20th century<ref>A manuscript was rediscovered by [[Tsendiin Damdinsüren|Academician Damdinsüren]] in 1959/1960</ref>, but in the meantime other theatre groups had developed. The first professional Mongolian theatre was founded in [[Ulaanbaatar]] in 1930.<ref>Walther Heissig, ''Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte'', München 1978, p.246-269</ref> In the socialist period, every [[Aimags of Mongolia|aimag]] got its own theatre. Since the 1990s, a number of small privately owned theatre companies, like ''Mask'' or ''Shine üe prodakshn'' have been founded. They heavily focus on light comedies and skits, and also regularly produce clips that are distributed on DVD or the internet.
==Fine Arts==
Before the 20th century, most works of the fine arts in Mongolia had a religious function, and therefore Mongolian fine arts were heavily influenced by religious texts.<ref>{{cite web
|author=Terese Tse Bartholomew
|year=1995
|url=http://www.asianart.com/mongolia/introduct.html
|title=Introduction to the Art of Mongolia
|publisher=asianart.com
|accessdate=2008-02-10
}}
</ref> [[Thangka]]s were usually painted or made in [[applique]] technique. Bronze sculptures usually showed Buddhist deities. A number of great works are attributed to the first [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]], [[Zanabazar]].
In the late 19th century, painters like [[Marzan Sharav|"Marzan" Sharav]] turned to more realistic painting styles. During the [[Mongolian People's Republic|socialist period]], [[socialist realism]] was the dominant painting style.<ref>Veronika Ronge, ''Kunst und Kunstgewerbe'', in Michael Weiers (editor), ''Die Mongolen, Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und Kultur'', Darmstadt 1986, p. 125-148</ref>
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
== Music ==
{{Main|Music of Mongolia}}
Mongolia has a very old musical tradition. Key traditional elements are [[throat-singing]], the [[Morin Khuur]] (horse head fiddle) and other string instruments, and several types of songs. Mongolian melodies are typically characterized by pentatonic harmonies and long end notes.
In the 20th century, western style classical music has been introduced, and mixed with traditional elements by some composers. Later on the full palette of Pop and Rock music has also been adopted by younger musicians.
== Cinema ==
{{Main|Cinema of Mongolia}}
In socialist times, movies were treated as a propaganda instrument by the [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]]. The first topics were popular legends and revolutionary heroes like in [[Sükhbaatar (movie)|Sükhbaatar]]. In the 1950s, the focus shifted to working class heroes, as in [[New Year (movie)|New Year]]. The 1970s saw many documentaries and everyday life stories as in [[The Clear Tamir]].
After democratisation, filmmakers turned to international partners for support, as in the Japanese-Mongolian co-production [[Genghis Khan (movie)|Genghis Khan]]. Independent directors like [[Dorjkhandyn Turmunkh]], and [[Byambasuren Davaa]] created movies that connected ancient traditions and mythology, and how they may relate to life in a modern world. Byambasuren's [[The Story of the Weeping Camel]] was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] as foreign documentary in 2005.
== Cuisine ==
{{Main|Mongolian cuisine}}
The [[Mongolian cuisine]] is primarily based on [[meat]] and [[dairy]] products, with some regional variations. The most common meat is [[Lamb (food)|mutton]], supplemented in the desert south by [[camel]] meat, in the northern mountains by [[beef]] (including [[yak]]). Dairy products are made from mare's milk ([[Kumys|Airag]]), from cattle, yaks, and camels (eg. clotted cream). Popular dishes include [[buuz]] (a type of meat dumpling), [[khuushuur]] (a meat pastry), [[khorkhog]] (a meat stew, usually a special meal for guests), and [[boortsog]] (a sweet biscuit). The meal commonly known as [[Mongolian barbecue]] is not Mongolian at all, but Taiwanese in origin.
Starting in the second half of the 20 century, vegetables are increasingly becoming a part of the Mongol diet as well. In the capital city of [[Ulaanbaatar]], there is a wide range of imported food available.
== Clothing ==
[[Image:Mongols clothes man and woman.jpg|thumb|Mongolian deels for a man (left) and a woman (right)]].
Mongolian dress has changed little since the days of the empire, because it is supremely well-adapted to the conditions of life on the [[steppe]] and the daily activities of pastoral [[nomads]]. However, there have been some changes in styles which distinguish modern Mongolian dress from historic costume. The [[Deel (clothing)|deel]], or [[kaftan (clothing)|kaftan]], is the Monglian traditional garment worn on both workdays and special days. It is a long, loose gown cut in one piece with the sleeves; it has a high collar and widely overlaps at the front. The deel is girdled with a sash. Mongolian deels always close on the wearer's right, and traditionally have five fastenings. Modern deels often have decoratively cut overflaps, small round necklines, and sometimes contain a [[Mandarin collar]].
Depictions of Mongols during the time of the empire, however, show deels with more open necklines, no collars, and very simply cut overflaps, similar to the deels still worn by [[lamas]] in modern [[Mongolia]]. In addition to the deel, both men and women might wear loose trousers beneath, and women might also wear underskirts. [[Skirts]] of the same style are still worn in part of [[Mongolia]] and [[China]] today; they have plain front and back panels with closely pleated side panels. Paintings of Mongols from [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[China|Chinese]] sources depict men, and often women, wearing their hair in braids. The hair would be divided into two pigtails, each of which would be divided into three braids. The ends of the braids would then be looped up and bound to the top of the braid behind the ears. Men also shaved the tops and sides of their heads, usually leaving only a short "forelock" in front and the long hair behind. The famous [[boqtaq]] headdress worn by women seems to have been restricted to married women of very high rank.<ref>[http://members.aol.com/noramunro/MongolDress/index.htm Mongolian Dress<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Each ethnic group living in Mongolia has its own deel design distinguished by cut, color and trimming. Before the revolution, all social strata in [[Mongolia]] had their own manner of dressing. Livestock-breeders, for example, wore plain deels, which served them both summer and winter. The priests wore yellow deels with a cape or [[khimj]] thrown over it. Secular [[feudal]] lords put on smart hats and silk waistcoats.<ref>[http://www.asia-planet.net/mongolia/culture.htm Asia-planet.net] Mongolia information</ref>
==Games==
Popular board games are [[chess]], and [[checkers]]. The chess figures are ''noyon'' (noble) = king, ''bers'' (cp. ''bars'' "tiger") = queen, ''temee'' (camel) = bishop, ''mori'' (horse) = knight, ''tereg'' (cart) = castle, ''khüü'' (boy) = pawn. The rules are (nowadays) the same as in European chess. [[Domino]] is also quite widespread. Indigenous card games existed in the 19th century,but are now lost.
Sheep anklebones, or [[Shagai]], are used in a number of different games, as dice, or as token. "[[Rock, Paper, Scissors]]"- and [[Morra (game)|Morra]]-like games are also played.<ref>Slawoj Szynkiewicz, ''Sport und Spiele'', in Walther Heissig (editor), ''Die Mongolen'' (exhibition catalogue), Innsbruck 1989, p. 205ff</ref> [[Burr puzzle|Wood knots]] and [[disentanglement puzzle]]s have traditionally been popular.
== See also ==
* [[Traditional Mongolian medicine]]
* [[Long-song]]
* [[Architecture of Mongolia]]
* [[Music of Mongolia]]
* [[Goyol Fashion Festival]]
* [[Tengriism]], Mongolian shamanism
== References ==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.asianart.com/mongolia/index.html Mongolian art exhibit]
{{Asia in topic|Culture of}}
[[Category:Mongolian culture| ]]
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[[fr:Culture mongole]]
[[he:תרבות מונגולית]]
[[pt:Cultura da Mongólia]]
[[zh:蒙古文化]]