Cynic
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Isokrates
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/* Origin of the Cynic name */ added ref for claim that "Cynic" may be derived from "Cynosarges".
{{two other uses|the ancient Greek school of philosophy|the current understanding of the word cynic|Cynicism|other uses|Cynic (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:Cinico_Capitolini.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of an unknown Cynic philosopher from the [[Capitoline Museum]] in [[Rome]]. This statue is a Roman-era copy of an earlier Greek statue from the 3rd or 2nd century BCE. The scroll in his right hand is an 18th century restoration.]]
The '''Cynics''' ({{lang-el|Κυνικοί}}, {{lang-la|Cynici}}) were an influential group of [[philosopher]]s from the ancient [[School (discipline)|school]] of Cynicism. Their philosophy was that the purpose of [[Personal life|life]] was to live a life of [[Virtue]] in agreement with [[Nature]]. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for [[wealth]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[health]], and [[Celebrity|fame]], and by living a life free from all possessions. As reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which was natural for [[humans]]. They believed that the [[world]] belonged equally to everyone, and that [[suffering]] was caused by false judgments of what was valuable and by the worthless [[Tradition|customs]] and [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] which surrounded [[society]]. Many of these thoughts were later absorbed into [[Stoicism]].
The first philosopher to outline these themes was [[Antisthenes]], who had been a pupil of [[Socrates]] in the late [[5th century BCE]]. He was followed by [[Diogenes of Sinope]], who lived in a tub on the streets of [[Athens]], took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by [[Crates of Thebes]] who gave away a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism spread with the rise of [[Imperial Rome]] in the [[1st century]], and Cynics could be found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. It finally disappeared in the late [[5th century]], although many of its [[ascetic]] ideas were adopted by early [[Christians]].
==Origin of the Cynic name==
The name Cynic derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word κυνικός, ''kunikos'', "dog-like" and that from κύων, ''kuôn'', "[[dog]]" ([[genitive]]: ''kunos'').<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2360864 '''Kunikos''', "A Greek-English Lexicon", Liddell and Scott, at Perseus]</ref> One possible explanation for why the Cynics were called ''dogs'' is because the first Cynic, [[Antisthenes]], taught in the [[Cynosarges]] gymnasium at [[Athens]].<ref>[[The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature|''The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature'']], 2nd edition, p. 165.</ref> The word ''Cynosarges'' means the place of the ''white dog''. It seems certain, however, that the word ''dog'' was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the streets. [[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]], in particular, was referred to as ''the Dog'',<ref>An obscure reference to "the Dog" in Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' (3.10.1411a25) is generally agreed to be the first reference to Diogenes.</ref> a distinction he seems to have revelled in, stating that "''other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them.''"<ref>Diogenes of Sinope, from Stobaeus, ''Florilegium'', iii. 13. 44.</ref> Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained:
<blockquote>There are four reasons why the ''Cynics'' are so named. First because of the ''indifference'' of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is
that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them.<ref>Scholium on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'', quoted in Dudley, D., (1937), ''A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.'' Cambridge.</ref></blockquote>
==Philosophy==
Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows:<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. Urmson and Rée), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref>
# The goal of life is [[happiness]] which is to live in agreement with [[Nature]].
# Happiness depends on being self-sufficient, and a master of mental attitude.
# Self-sufficiency is achieved by living a life of [[Virtue]].
# The road to Virtue is to free oneself from any influence such as wealth, fame, or power, which have no value in Nature.
# Suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative [[emotions]] and a vicious character.
A Cynic, then, has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power or reputation. A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result of convention. The Cynics adopted [[Heracles|Hercules]] as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic.
The Cynical way of life required continuous training, not just in exercising one's judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well:
<blockquote>[Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is good, depend equally on both mind and body.<ref name="diog1"/></blockquote>
None of this meant that the Cynic would retreat from society, far from it, Cynics would live in the full glare of the public's gaze and would be quite indifferent in the face of any [[insults]] which might result from their unconventional behaviour. The Cynics are said to have invented the idea of [[cosmopolitanism]]: when he was asked where he came from, Diogenes replied that he was "''a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)''."<ref name="diog1"/>
The ideal Cynic would [[evangelism|evangelise]]; as the [[guard dog|watchdog]] of humanity, it was their job to hound people about the error of their ways. The example of the Cynic's life (and the use of the Cynic's biting [[satire]]) would dig-up and expose the pretensions which lay at the root of everyday conventions.
Although, by concentrating solely on [[Ethics (philosophy)|ethics]], Cynicism had limited goals, Cynic philosophy had a big impact on the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] world, ultimately becoming an important influence for [[Stoicism]]. The Stoic [[Apollodorus of Seleucia|Apollodorus]] writing in the [[2nd century BCE]] stated that "''Cynicism is the short path to virtue.''"<ref>Diogenes Laërtius, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/diogeneslaertius-book7-stoics.html ''The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, VII'']</ref>
==History of Cynicism==
===Influences===
Various philosophers, such as the [[Pythagoreans]], had advocated simple living in the centuries preceding the Cynics. In the early [[6th century BCE]], [[Anacharsis]], a [[Scythian]] sage had combined plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become standard among the Cynics.<ref>Martin, R., "''The Scythian Accent: Anacharsis and the Cynics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy''. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> Perhaps of importance were tales of [[India]]n philosophers, known to later Greeks as the [[Gymnosophists]], who had adopted a strict [[asceticism]] together with a disrespect for established [[laws]] and [[Norm (sociology)|customs]].<ref>Romm, J., "''Dog Heads and Noble Savages: Cynicism before the Cynics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy''. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> By the [[5th century BCE]], the [[Sophists]] had begun a process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as [[religion]], [[law]] and [[ethics]]. However, the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was [[Socrates]]. Although he was not an ascetic, he did profess a love of [[Virtue]] and an indifference to [[wealth]],<ref>Plato, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1656 ''Apology''], 41e.</ref> together with a disdain for general opinion.<ref>Xenophon, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1171 ''Apology''], 1.</ref> These aspects of Socrates' thought, which formed only a minor part of [[Plato]]'s philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates' pupils, [[Antisthenes]].
===Antisthenes===
The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with [[Antisthenes]] (c. [[445 BCE|445]]-[[365 BCE]]), who was an older contemporary of [[Plato]] and a pupil of [[Socrates]]. At about 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one of the most important of Socrates' disciples.<ref>Xenophon, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1181 ''Symposium''], 4.57-64.</ref> Although later classical authors had little doubt about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism, his philosophical views seem to be more complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes by [[Diogenes Laërtius]], writings on [[Language]], [[Dialogue]] and [[Literature]] far outnumber those on [[Ethics (philosophy)|Ethics]] or [[Politics]],<ref name="diog1">Diogenes Laërtius, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/diogeneslaertius-book6-cynics.html ''The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, VI'']</ref> although it is quite possible he wrote many of these works in his youth. It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of [[poverty]]:
<blockquote>I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not [even] Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?<ref>Xenophon, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1181 ''Symposium''], 4.34.</ref></blockquote>
===Diogenes of Sinope===
[[Diogenes of Sinope]] (c. [[412 BCE|412]]-[[323 BCE]]) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally came to [[Athens]], fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], got into trouble for falsifying the coinage.<ref name="diog1"/> (The phrase "''defacing the currency''" later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.) Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes, but it is by no means certain that they ever met. What is true is that Diogenes adopted Antisthenes teachings and embraced the [[asceticism|ascetic]] way of life, pursuing a lifestyle of self-sufficiency (''autarkeia''), austerity (''askēsis''), and shamelessness (''anaidei''a).<ref>Sarton, G., ''Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece,'' Dover Publications. (1980).</ref> There are countless anecdotes about his extravagant asceticism (sleeping in a tub), shameless behaviour (eating raw meat), and his biting satire (on travelling from [[Sparta]] to [[Athens]]: "I am going from the men's apartments to the women's"),<ref name="diog1"/> and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are genuine, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.
===Crates of Thebes===
[[Crates of Thebes]] (c. [[365 BCE|365]]-c. [[285 BCE]]) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens.<ref name="diog1"/> He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes, but again this is uncertain. Crates married [[Hipparchia the Cynic|Hipparchia]] after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens,<ref>Although there is no mention in ancient sources of them actually begging.</ref> where Crates was treated with respect.<ref>Plutarch, ''Symposiacs'', 2.1.</ref> Crates' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]]. The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his ''Republic'') can be ascribed to Crates' influence.
===Other Cynics===
There were many other Cynics around in the [[4th century BCE|4th]] and [[3rd century BCE|3rd centuries BCE]], including [[Onesicritus]] (who sailed with [[Alexander the Great]] to [[India]]), and the moral satirists [[Bion of Borysthenes]] and [[Menippus|Menippus of Gadara]]. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the [[3rd century BCE]], Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline, and it is not until we reach the [[Roman era]] that there seems to be a Cynic revival.
==Cynicism in the Roman World==
We hear very little about Cynicism in the second or first centuries BCE; [[Cicero]] (c. [[50 BCE]]), who was much interested in [[Greek philosophy]], had little to say about Cynicism, except that "''it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor.''"<ref>Cicero, ''De Officiis'', i. 41.</ref> However, by the [[1st century]], Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of [[Imperial Rome]], like the Greek loss of independence under [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]] and [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again. Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about [[Virtue]].<ref>Lucian, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm ''De Morte Peregrini''], 3</ref> [[Lucian]] complained that "''every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog.''"<ref>Lucian, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl421.htm ''Fugitivi''], 16.</ref> The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century was [[Demetrius the Cynic|Demetrius]], whom [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] praised as "''a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects.''"<ref>Seneca, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3794 ''De Beneficiis''], vii.</ref> Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the [[2nd century]], Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher [[Peregrinus Proteus]],<ref>Lucian, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm ''De Morte Peregrini''].</ref> nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, [[Demonax]], in a dialogue.<ref>Lucian, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6829 ''Demonax''].</ref>
Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of [[Stoicism]], a view which led [[Epictetus]] to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse.<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], 3. 22.</ref> According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "''must know that he is sent as a messenger from [[Zeus]] to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered.''"<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], 3. 22. 23</ref> Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "''consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in [[flatulence|breaking wind]].''"<ref>Epictetus, [http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/discourses.html ''Discourses''], 3. 22. 80</ref>
Cynicism seems to have thrived into the [[4th century]], (unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century). The Emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] (ruled [[361]]-[[363]]), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism.<ref>Julian, ''Oration 6: To the Uneducated Cynics''; ''Oration 7: To the Cynic Heracleios''.</ref>
The final Cynic we hear about is [[Sallustius of Emesa]] in the late [[5th century]].<ref>Damascius, ''Life of Isidorus'': fragments preserved in the ''Commentary on Plato's Parmenides'' by [[Proclus]], in the ''Bibliotheca'' of [[Photius]], and in ''The [[Suda]]''.</ref> A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher [[Isidore of Alexandria]], he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism.
==Cynicism and Christianity==
===Historical Jesus as a Jewish Cynic===
Many historians have noted the similarities between the life and teachings of [[Jesus]] and those of the Cynics. Some scholars on the [[quest for the historical Jesus]], such as [[John Dominic Crossan]] of the [[Jesus Seminar]], who have conducted a study of Jesus using cross-cultural [[anthropology]], [[Greco-Roman]] history, and an analysis of the [[gospel|primary sources of the Jesus tradition]] itself, have come to the controversial conclusion that the [[historical Jesus]] was more like a Cynic sage from an [[Hellenistic Jewish]] tradition than either a [[Christ]] who would die as a [[Substitutionary atonement|substitute for sinners]] or a [[Jewish messianism|Messiah]] who would lead a revolt against the [[Roman Empire]] and establish an independent Jewish state of Israel.<ref>The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, 1991, ISBN 0-06-061629-6</ref> [[Burton L. Mack|Burton Mack]] has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure."<ref>Quoted in R. Ostling, [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968139,00.html ''Who was Jesus?", Time, August 15, 1988, pages 37-42].</ref> The city of [[Gadara]], only a day's walk from [[Nazareth]], was particularly notable as a center of Cynic philosophy.<ref>In particular, [[Menippus]] (3rd century BCE), [[Meleager of Gadara|Meleager]] (1st century BCE), and [[Oenomaus of Gadara|Oenomaus]] (2nd century CE), all came from Gadara.</ref>
===Cynic influences on early Christianity===
Many of the [[ascetic]] practices of Cynicism were undoubtably adopted by early [[Christians]], and Christians often employed the same [[rhetoric]]al methods as the Cynics.<ref>F. Gasco Lacalle, (1986) ''Cristianos y cinicos. Una tificacion del fenomeno cristiano durante el siglo II,'' pages 111-119. Memorias de Historia Antigua 7.</ref> Some Cynics were actually martyred for speaking out against the authorities.<ref>Dio Cassius, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/65*.html#p291 ''Epitome of book 65'', 15.5]</ref> One Cynic, [[Peregrinus Proteus]], lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism,<ref>Lucian, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl420.htm ''De Morte Peregrini''], 10-15</ref> whereas in the [[4th century]], [[Maximus the Cynic|Maximus of Alexandria]], although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics,<ref>Dudley, D., (1937), ''A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.'' pages 209-211. Cambridge.</ref> as can be seen in the wandering [[mendicant]] monks of the early church who in outward appearance, and in many of their practices were little different from the Cynics of an earlier age.
==Important Cynics==
{{See also|Category:Cynic philosophers}}
[[Ancient Greece|Greek-era]] Cynics:
*[[Antisthenes]] (c. 445-c. 365 BCE), Pupil of [[Socrates]].
*[[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]] (c. 412-323 BCE), The [[archetypal]] Cynic.
*[[Onesicritus]] (c. 360-c. 290 BCE), Historian of [[Alexander the Great]].
*[[Crates of Thebes|Crates]] (c. 365-c. 285 BCE), Cynic teacher of [[Zeno of Citium]].
*[[Hipparchia the Cynic|Hipparchia]] (c. 325 BCE), Wife of Crates.
*[[Metrocles]] (c. 325 BCE), Brother of Hipparchia.
*[[Bion of Borysthenes]] (c. 325-c. 255 BCE), Cynic satirist and diatribist.
*[[Menippus]] (c. 275 BCE), Cynic satirist.
*[[Cercidas]] (c. 250 BCE), Cynic poet.
*[[Teles the Cynic|Teles]] (c. 235 BCE), Cynic teacher and writer.
[[Ancient Rome|Roman era]] Cynics:
*[[Demetrius the Cynic|Demetrius]] (c. 10-c. 80), Cynic friend of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].
*[[Demonax]] (c. 70-c. 170), Cynic praised by [[Lucian]].
*[[Oenomaus of Gadara|Oenomaus]] (c. 120), Cynic critic of [[religion]].
*[[Peregrinus Proteus]] (c. 95-167), Cynic who killed himself at the [[Ancient Olympics|Olympics]].
*[[Sallustius of Emesa|Sallustius]] (c. 430-c. 500), [[Neoplatonist]] who became a Cynic.
==See also==
* [[Asceticism]]
* [[Natural law]]
* [[Stoicism]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
* Branham, Goulet-Cazé, (editors), ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' University of California Press. (1996).
* Dudley, D., [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofcynicis032872mbp ''A History Of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.''] Cambridge. (1937).
* Navia, L., ''Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study.'' Greenwood Press. (1996).
* Prince, S., ''Socrates, Antisthenes, and the Cynics.'' in ''A Companion to Socrates,'' ed. Ahbel-Rappe and Kamtekar. Blackwell Publishing. (2005).
* Urmson, J., Rée, J., ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' Routledge. (2005).
==Further reading==
*R. Bracht Branham, Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé, (editors), (1996), ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy''. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21645-8
*Ian Cutler, (2005), ''Cynicism from Diogenes to Dilbert''. McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-786-42093-6
*William D. Desmond, (2006), ''The Greek Praise of Poverty: Origins of Ancient Cynicism''. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-02582-7
*F. Gerald Downing, (1992), ''Cynics and Christian Origins''. T. & T. Clark. ISBN 0-567-09613-0
*Donald R. Dudley, (1937), ''A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.'' Bristol Classical Paperbacks. ISBN 1-853-99548-7 (Available at the [http://www.archive.org/details/historyofcynicis032872mbp Internet Archive])
*Luis E. Navia, (1996), ''Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study''. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30015-1
==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
===Primary sources===
*[[Diogenes Laërtius]], [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/diogeneslaertius-book6-cynics.html ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Book VI: The Cynics'']
*[[Dio Chrysostom]], Cynic Discourses: [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/6*.html ''Oration 6''], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/8*.html ''Oration 8''], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/9*.html ''Oration 9''], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dio_Chrysostom/Discourses/10*.html ''Oration 10''].
*[[Epictetus]], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0236&query=head%3D%2380 ''Discourse 3.22, On Cynicism'']
*[[Pseudo-Lucian]], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl4/wl431.htm ''The Cynic'']
===Secondary sources===
*{{iep|c/cynics.htm}}
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-75 ''Cynics''], from ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20051020.shtml ''Cynicism''], [[BBC Radio 4]] programme: ''[[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]]''
*[http://www-oxford.op.org/allen/html/acts.htm ''Was Jesus a philosophical Cynic?''], article by Bruce W. Griffin.
*{{ws|''[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Cynic School of Philosophy|Cynic School of Philosophy]]'' in the 1913 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''}}.
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