Cynicism
228698
226156026
2008-07-17T02:01:39Z
John Millikin
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/* Ancient Greece */ loosing -> losing
{{two other uses|(primarily) the current understanding of the word "cynicism"|more detail on the ancient Greek school of philosophy|Cynic|other uses|Cynic (disambiguation)}}
'''Cynicism''' ({{lang-el|Kυνισμός}}) originally comprised the various [[philosophy|philosophies]] of a group of ancient [[Greeks]] called the '''[[Cynic]]s''', founded by [[Antisthenes]] in about the 4th century BC.<ref name="cynic1">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cynics.htm ''Cynics''] - ''The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''</ref> The Cynics rejected all conventions, whether of religion, manners, housing, dress, or decency, advocating the pursuit of [[virtue]] in a simple and unmaterialistic lifestyle.<ref name="cynic1"/>.
In [[pop culture]], the word ''cynicism'' generally describes the opinions of those who see self-interest as the primary motive of human behaviour, and who disincline to rely upon [[sincerity]], human [[virtue]], or [[altruism]] as motivations.<ref>
[http://www.answers.com/topic/cynic Answers.com]. Retrieved on [[2008-04-28]].
</ref>
On the other hand, the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] suggests as the usual modern definition (per ''cynic''): showing "a disposition to disbelieve in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and actions" and a tendency "to express this by sneers and sarcasms".
== History of cynicism==
=== Ancient Greece===
{{mainarticle|Cynic}}
The classical [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Cynics regarded [[virtue]] as the only necessity for [[happiness]], and saw virtue as entirely sufficient for attaining happiness. Classical Cynics followed this philosophy to the extent of neglecting everything not furthering their perfection of virtue and attainment of happiness, thus, the title ''Cynics'', derived from the Greek word ''κύων'', ("dog" in English) because they allegedly neglected society, hygiene, family, money, etc, in a similar way that [[dog]]s and other [[canid]]s scent-mark by urination, to neglect areas outside their territory, or inside, when they fear of losing control of it. They sought to free themselves from conventions; become self-sufficient; and live only in accordance with [[nature]]. They rejected any conventional notions of happiness involving [[money]], [[power (sociology)|power]], or [[celebrity|fame]], to lead entirely virtuous, and thus happy, [[personal life|lives]].<ref name="cynic1"/>
One aspect of the Cynic way of life involved [[criticism]] of the types of behaviours, such as [[greed]], which the Cynics viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this aspect of their teachings led, in the 19th century, to the modern understanding of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others."<ref>
[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Cynicism ''Cynicism''], ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''. Fourth Edition. 2006. Houghton Mifflin Company.
</ref>
This modern definition of cynicism differs markedly from the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation from desire."<ref>
Bertrand Russell, ''A History of Western Philosophy'', page 231. Simon and Schuster.
</ref>
=== Toward modern cynicism ===
Nearly 2000 years after certain Greek philosophers first embraced classical cynicism, 17th and 18th century writers such as [[Shakespeare]], [[Jonathan Swift|Swift]], and [[Voltaire]], following in the traditions of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] and [[François Rabelais]], used [[irony]], [[sarcasm]], and [[satire]] (which had never gone out of fashion) to ridicule human conduct and revive cynicism. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century literary and cinema figures such as [[Mark Twain]], [[Dorothy Parker]], [[H.L. Mencken]], and [[W.C. Fields]] used cynicism as way of communicating their low opinions of certain manifestations of [[human nature]]. By 1930, [[Bertrand Russell]] — in the essay ''On Youthful Cynicism''<ref>
Bertrand Russell: [http://www.cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Russell/on_youthful_cynicism.html "On Youthful Cynicism"], circa 1930. Retrieved [[2008-03-25]]
</ref> — could describe the extent to which (in his view) cynicism had penetrated parts of [[Western culture| Western]] mass [[consciousness]], and could note particular areas partially deserving of cynicism: [[religion]], country ([[patriotism]]), [[progress]], [[beauty]], [[truth]]. The first half of the 20th century, with its two [[World War]]s, offered little hope to people wishing to embrace an [[idealism]] diametrically opposed to cynicism: seeing fellow-humans as trustworthy, well-intentioned, caring, decent, and honourable.<ref>
[http://www.i-cynic.com/whatis.asp "The Cynic's Sanctuary"]. Retrieved [[2008-04-28]]
</ref>
The second half of the 20th century featured a general rejection{{Fact|date=April 2008}} of virtue and self-restraint, and a movement toward [[materialism]] — particularly in what [[Pope John Paul II]] termed "the cynical society of consumerism" in his 1984 Christmas remarks.<ref>
Pope John Paul II: "[http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP2DONUM.HTM Redemptionis donum: Apostolic Exhortation of His Holiness promulgated on 25 March 1984]" retrieved [[2008-04-28]]. (The quoted phrase does not occur in this translation)</ref>{{Failed verification|date=July 2008}}
The same communications media whose advertising bolstered [[consumerism]] also occasionally promoted entertaining [[conspiracy theory| conspiracy theories]], thus adding the long-standing traditions of conspiracies to a new "hidden agenda" dimension to the cynicism of some.<ref>[http://www.settingtheworldtorights.com/node/449 "Conspiracy Theories – 5: Paranoia As Faith"] on the web-site "settingtheworldtorights.com" Retrieved [[2008-04-28]]
</ref>
In [[as of 2008| recent]] decades, the study of [[human nature]] — one book's title portrays a ''Battle for Human Nature''<ref>
Schwartz, Barry ''The battle for human nature : science, morality, and modern life'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1986. ISBN 0393023192
</ref> — focused new attention on cynicism.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In attempting to counter an alleged widespread belief portraying "jungle ethics" and the associated [[competition]], self-interest, and [[survival of the fittest]] as innate to the human animal, researchers{{Who|date=April 2008}} with an opposing agenda looked for a genetic basis for [[co-operation]] and [[altruism| altruistic]] behavior, and for signs that human [[society| societal]] participation ultimately built upon co-operation and altruism.<ref>
[http://www.i-cynic.com/whatis.asp "The Cynic's Sanctuary"]{{Verify source|date=July 2008}}<!-- Does the source support the statement in the article? -- We may need a quotation in this footnote... -->
</ref>
[[Alfie Kohn]] argued that a person's cynicism stems from escaping [[responsibility]], another belief sees cynicism as following [[sophistication]] in human [[psychological development]].<ref>
Alfie Kohn: ''The brighter side of human nature : altruism and empathy in everyday life'' New York: Basic Books 1990. ISBN 0465006655
</ref>
In 2005, researchers at Yale University found that children as young as eight years old could discount the statements of others as tarnished with "self-interest".<ref>
"By the time children are in second grade, they know to take what people say with a grain of salt, particularly when the statement supports the speaker's self-interest, according to a published study by Yale researchers." Compare ''Psychological Science'' 16(5): 385-390 (May 2005). [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050526092240.htm "Children Develop Cynicism At An Early Age"], in ''ScienceDaily'' ([[May 26]], 2005), retrieved [[2008-03-25]]
</ref>
==Types of cynicism ==
{{Expand-section|date=July 2008}}
One can differentiate the following types of cynicism:
=== Cynicism in the sense of "animosity"===
Accusations of "cynicism" may originate in the negative perceptions and hostile attitudes of individuals concerning others. People who obtain high values on the ''hostility scale'',<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Cook
| first = W. W.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Medley, D. M.
| date =
| year = 1954
| month =
| title = Proposed hostility and parasaic virtue scales for the MMPI
| journal = Journal of Applied Psychology
| volume = 38
| issue =
| pages = 414-418
}}
</ref>
have low confidence in their fellow humans, and regard them as dishonest, antisocial, immoral and bad.
===Social cynicism ===
Social cynicism results from excessively high expectations concerning society, institutions and authorities. Unfulfilled expectations lead to disappointment, which releases feelings of disillusionment and betrayal.<ref>
Donald L. Kanter and Philip H. Mirvis, (1989). ''The Cynical Americans - Living and Working in an Age of Discontent and Disillusion.'' San Francisco
</ref>
=== Occupational cynicism===
Occupational cynicism consists of cynical attitudes in relation to aspects of one's own work, leading to a loss of pride and respect concerning oneself in relation to one's own work.
===Organizational cynicism ===
Organizational cynicism manifests itself as a general or specific attitude, characterized by frustration, hopelessness, disillusionment and distrust in regard to economic organizations, [[manager]]s and/or other aspects of work.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Andersson
| first = L. M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Bateman, T. S.
| year = 1997
| title = Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects
| journal = Journal of Organizational Behavior
| volume = 18
| issue =
| pages = 449-469
| quote =
}}
</ref>
=== Cynicism with organisational changes===
Pessimism concerning the success of future organisational changes can result from (among other things) negative experiences of previous changes. The organisational-change cynic views people responsible for organisational changes as incompetent or unwilling.<ref>
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Austin, J. T. (1994). ''Organizational cynicism: An initial study.'' Academy of management best papers proceedings, 269-273.
</ref> <ref>
Reichers, A. E., Wanous, J. P., & Austin, J. T.1997. ''Understanding and managing cynicism about organizational change.'' Academy of Management Executive, 11,(1): 48-59
</ref> <ref>
Vance, R. J., Brooks, S. M., & Tesluk, P. E. 1996. ''Organizational cynicism and change.'' Working Paper,. Pennsylvania State University, University Park.
</ref> <ref>
{{cite journal
| last = Stanley
| first = D.J.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Meyer, J.P., and Topolnytsky, L.
| year = 2005
| title = Employee cynicism and resistance to organizational change
| journal = Journal of Business and Psychology
| volume = 19
| issue = 4
| pages = 429-459
| url =
| accessdate =
| quote =
}}
</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Skepticism| Scepticism]]
* [[Nihilism]]
* [[Original sin]]
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Human nature]]
== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Further reading ==
* David Mazella, (2007), ''The Making of Modern Cynicism'', University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-813-92615-7
* [[Peter Sloterdijk]], (1988), ''Critique of Cynical Reason'', University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-816-61586-1
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.i-cynic.com The Cynic's Sanctuary]
* [http://www.projectworldview.org/wvtheme36.htm Cynicism / Conspiracism ] from Project Worldview
<!-- * The scandal of the cynics http://exchange.pressureworks.org/Members/grayscale100/news.2005-06-07.1829719677 The scandal of the cynics -->
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/notesandqueries/query/0,,-6328,00.html "Is it worse to be cynical or jaded?"] Retrieved [[2008-05-30]]
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