Cyprus in the Middle Ages 1455333 222621781 2008-06-30T08:54:17Z Robina Fox 1765847 /* See also */internal link {{History of Cyprus}} The Medieval history of [[Cyprus]] starts with the division of the [[Roman Empire]] into an Eastern and [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] half. ==Byzantine period== After the division of the [[Roman Empire]] into an eastern half and a [[Western Roman Empire|western]] half, Cyprus came under the rule of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]. The cities of Cyprus were destroyed by two successive earthquakes in [[332]] and [[342]] AD and this marked the end of an era and at the same time the beginning of a new one, very much connected with modern life in Cyprus. Most of the cities were not rebuilt, save [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]] which was rebuilt on a smaller scale and renamed Constantia after the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantius II]], son of [[Constantine the Great]], residing in [[Constantinople]]. The new city was now the [[capital]] of the island. It was mainly [[Christian]] and due to this some alterations were made during the rebuilding. The palaestra was turned into a meeting place and many architectural elements were used to erect spacious churches decorated with murals, mosaics and coloured marbles. The main event in Cyprus in this period was the spreading of the Christian faith. At that time, its [[bishop]], while still subject to the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|Church]], was made [[autocephalous]] by the [[Council of Ephesus]]. People were engaged very much in matters of faith, especially fighting the effort of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]] to put the [[Church of Cyprus]] under his control. They were finally successful in [[488]] AD when Archbishop Anthemius guided by a dream discovered the tomb of St [[Barnabas]] with the Saint's body lying in a coffin and on his chest a copy of the Gospel by [[Matthew the Evangelist|St Matthew]] in Barnabas' own writing. Having the relics with him, Anthemius dashed to Constantinople and presented them to [[Zeno (emperor)|Emperor Zeno]]. The latter was very much impressed and he not only confirmed the independence of the Church of Cyprus but he also gave to the Archbishop in perpetuity three privileges that are as much alive today as they were then, namely to carry a sceptre instead of a pastoral staff, to sign with red ink and to wear a purple cloak during services. By the beginning of the 7th century, the patriarch of Alexandria was [[St. John the Merciful]] from Amathus. Another important Cypriot of the time is the church writer [[Leontios of Neapolis]]. ==Arab Condominium== In [[650]] AD Arabs made the first attack on the island under the leadership of [[Muawiya]]. They conquered the capital Salamis - Constantia after a brief siege, but drafted a treaty with the local rulers. In the course of this expedition a relative of the [[Muhammad|Prophet]], Umm-Haram fell from her mule near the Salt Lake at [[Larnaca]] and was killed. She was buried in that spot and much later in [[1816]] the [[Hala Sultan Tekke]] was built there by the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]]. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in [[654]] AD with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under [[Muslim]] influence.<ref>Nadvi (2000), pg. 522</ref> When the [[Arabs]] invaded Cyprus in [[688]], the emperor [[Justinian II]] and the [[caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik]] reached an unprecedented agreement. For the next 300 years, Cyprus was ruled jointly by both the [[Arabs]] and the Byzantines as a [[condominium (international law)|condominium]], despite the nearly constant warfare between the two parties on the mainland and the collected taxes were divided among the Arabs and the Emperor. In 868 [[Alexis the General|Alexis]] captured Cyprus for Byzantium. However it soon returned to Arab control. Isolation of Cyprus from the rest of the Greek speaking world assisted the formation of a separate [[Cypriot Greek|Cypriot dialect]]. This period of Arab influence lasted until the 10th Century. ==Byzantine Reconquest== In the year [[958]], when a resurgent Byzantine Empire under the leadership of [[Nicephorus II|Nicephorus Phocas]] conquered the island. The actual conquest was under the Byzantine general [[Basil]].<ref>Sanjian, Avedis K., ''The Armenian Communities in SYria under Ottoman Dominion'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Havard University Press, 1965) p. 161</ref> By 965 [[Vakram]], a man of Armenian origin was governor of Cyprus.<ref>Sanjian, Avedis K., ''The Armenian Communities in SYria under Ottoman Dominion'' (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Havard University Press, 1965) p. 161</ref> In [[1185]], the last Byzantine governor of Cyprus, [[Isaac Comnenus|Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus]] from a minor line of the Imperial house, rose in rebellion and attempted to seize the throne. His attempted coup was unsuccessful, but Comnenos was able to retain control of the island. Byzantine actions against Comnenos failed because he enjoyed the support of [[William II of Sicily]]. The Emperor had agreed with the [[sultan]] of Egypt to close Cypriot harbours to the [[Crusaders]]. ==Crusades&mdash;Lusignan Period 1191-1489== In the [[12th century]] A.D. the island became a target of the [[crusades|crusaders]]. [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] landed in [[Limassol]] on the [[June 1|1st of June]] [[1191]] in search of his sister and his bride [[Berengaria of Navarre|Berengaria]], whose ship had become separated from the fleet in a storm. Upon her arrival, the ruler [[Isaac Comnenus|Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus]] requested that Berengaria deboard, which she refused, and upon her own refusal was denied supplies from Comnenus. Richard took this as an insult and attacked the island which was easily subdued. Comnenus was bound to lend aid to Richard in his crusade against Saladin, an oath which he later broke, and Richard had him bound in silver chains (as he swore not to bind Comnenus in iron) and kept prisoner till his death in [[1194]] or [[1195]]. The Cypriot chronicler St. Neophytus gave Richard the epithet of "the wretch". Richard married Berengaria in Limassol on the [[May 12|12th of May]] [[1192]]. She was crowned as [[Queen of England]] by [[John Fitzluke]], [[Bishop of Évreux]]. The crusader fleet continued to [[St. Jean d'Acre]] ([[Syria]]) on the [[June 5|5th of June]]. The army of Richard the Lionheart continued to occupy Cyprus and raised taxes. After local revolts he decided to sell the island to the [[Knights Templar]], who were unable to hold the island because of further hostility among the local population due to tax raising. A rebellion which took place on [[April 6]] 1192 made the Templars sell the island to [[Guy de Lusignan]] (1192-[[1194]]) who established himself in May 1192. ===Guy de Lusignan=== Richard saw this sale as advantageous to himself, as the island wasn't worth the trouble to him, as Guy had been captured by [[Saladin]] at [[Jerusalem]]. Though released later, in 1192 he was ousted in favor of [[Henry II of Champagne]] as a result, and was willing to buy Cyprus. The crusaders described him as "simplex et minus astutus", though he did set the foundation of Cypriot society in the Lusignan period. He invited Palestinian barons, disenfranchised by [[Saladin]] to move on the island, granting them [[feudal system|feudal rights]] over huge estates, using the Cypriots as serfs. ===Aimery=== [[Geoffrey de Lusignan]] passed up the position of ruler, so Guy was succeeded by his older brother Aimery (1194-[[1205]]). During his reign, the Latin church took over the dioceses of the Orthodox, creating a long standing dispute that also characterized the [[Lusignan]] period. [[Amalric of Lusignan|Amaury]] also managed to get Cyprus recognized as "[[Kingdom of Cyprus|kingdom]]", a title granted to him by [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI]]. He then regained officially the title of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] by marrying [[Henry II of Champagne]]'s widow, [[Isabella, Queen of Jerusalem|Isabel]]. Though in name only, this title was something the Lusignan kings were very proud of as it appears on the Cypriot coat of arms. After some skirmishing in Acre with the [[Sultan of Egypt]] al-Malkik [[Al-Adil I|al-Adil]], a treaty was granted in [[1204]] giving him some advantages in [[Palestine]]. It is said that his eating too much fish in one sitting was his cause of death in 1205. ===Hugh I=== The kingship then passed to his son, [[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh I]] (1205-[[1218]]). He participated in the useless 5th crusade, and died suddenly in Tripoli. He had married [[Alice of Champagne of Jerusalem|Alice of Champagne]] (daughter of Henry and Isabel) and had only one son, Henry I (1218-[[1253]]). ===Henry I=== His regency, as he was only five at the time, lasted almost 15 years under his mother Alice. She granted the [[Genoese]] extensive trading privileges on the island (which would prove later to be a mistake), giving them the port of [[Famagusta]], which would replace Limassol as the island's leading port by 1300 (helped especially by a 10 year papal ban on [[Muslim]] trade). [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] tried to seize the regency, receiving initially recognition of suzerainity from now regent [[John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut|John of Ibelin]], but later the regent would join the opposition. In the battle of Aghirda, the Ibelins won a surprising victory of the imperial forces, and the effots of Frederick. known as the [[Stupor Mundi]] proved unsuccessful. King [[Henry I of Cyprus|Henry]] ("the fat" as he was called, for his easy going manner) played no part in these struggles, but when of age he participated in the 7th crusade under [[Louis IX of France]] to destroy the power of [[Egypt]]. His left behind forces were forced to surrender in [[1250]]. At about that time, a Cypriot youngster in search of a better education would travel to the empire of Nicaea and eventually become Patriarch of Constantinople as [[Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople|Gregory II]]. Gregory's autobiography gives valuable information on the transition from Byzantine to Lusignan rule and its impact on the local population and especially education. Meanwhile, Henry takes as his 3rd wife [[Plaisance of Antioch]], who finally bears him a son [[Hugh II of Cyprus|Hugh II]] ([[1253]]-[[1267]]) who came upon the throne while only a few months of age. Plaisance acted as his regent, and is described by one chronicler as "one of the most valiant women in the world". She appeared at Acre, now erupting into virtual war between the [[Venice|Venetians]], [[Pisa]]ns, and [[Knights Templar]] and the Genoese, [[Spain|Spanish]], and the Hospitallers. By backing the Venetians, she hoped to have her son recognized as the King of Jerusalem, but the title had little value. When Plaisance died, Hugh of Antioch became regent. ===Hugh III=== Hugh II died childless, and Hugh of [[Antioch]] changed his name to [[Hugh III of Cyprus|Hugh III]], (1267-[[1284]]), taking from his mother's side in order to revive the Lusignan dynasty. The Christian-friendly [[Mongols]] were pushing from the east and offered a chance of alliance against the Egyptian Sultan, but the eternally feuding powers of Medieval [[Europe]] threw this chance away, while Hugh tried to mediate with them in [[Syria]]. He died in [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], succeeded by his oldest son [[John II of Jerusalem|John I]] (1284-1285), and then by his other son [[Henry II of Jerusalem|Henry II]] ([[1285]]-[[1324]]). His reign and reputation suffered from his [[epilepsy]], and in [[1286]] he was crowned at Tyre for the kingdom of Jerusalem only to see it fall to Egyptian Mameluk sultan. In [[1306]], Henry's brother [[Amaury]] seized power and exiled Henry in [[Cilicia]], but Henry was restored in [[1310]]. He is mentioned in [[Dante]]'s Paradiso, but it is not a nice reference. ===Hugh IV=== Rule passed on to his nephew [[Hugh IV of Cyprus|Hugh IV]] (1324-[[1359]]), who found himself in a new privileged position. The fall of the last coastal strongholds of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] made it unnecessary for the island to waste its money on its defense. It also made the island the center for Oriental trade, and [[Famagusta]]n merchants became notoriously rich, and the island as a whole became known for its wealth. Hugh enjoyed a peaceful reign, and preferred to stay on the island. [[Peter I of Cyprus|Peter I]] (1359-1369), his son, may perhaps be the best known King of Cyprus. He is mentioned in [[Chaucer]]'s canterbury tales. He led an expedition to [[Alexandria]] that upset the [[Italy|Italian]] merchants, but proved successful (at least in gathering booty). He toured Europe in order to gather support for his love of crusading, but found their promises unfulfilled. He sacked [[Alexandria]] again regardless, and in destroying the gates found it impossible to hold against the [[Mameluks]]. He was driven out, but had he held it would have been a very valuable outpost. He was murdered by his nobles, but left a very devoted wife [[Eleanor of Aragon]] (supposedly he took her nightgown with him on his campaigns), who with the help of the [[Italians]] pursued the assassins. ===Peter II=== Upon the ascension of [[Peter II of Cyprus|Peter II]] "the fat", ([[1369]]-[[1382]]), because of his lethargy, a riot broke out the coronation ceremony at the Cathedral of [[St. Nicholas]] in [[Famagusta]] between the Venetians and the Genoese. The dispute arose over who would lead the King's horse on the right side; traditionally it belonged to the Genoese but now the Venetians took it. Many Genoese were killed in the riot, and the Italian city responded harshly. In [[1374]], the island surrendered to the Genoese under terms of tribute, payment for damages, and loss of Famagusta to the Genoese, effectively ending prosperity. ===James I=== Peter succumbed to his lethargy, and the rule passed on to [[James I of Cyprus|James I]] (1382-[[1398]]), his uncle and now prisoner in [[Genoa]]. He was released on harsh terms, including the proviso that all ships coming into Cyprus land in now Genoese [[Famagusta]]. The King also had to raise taxes in order to pay. He added the title the King of [[Armenia]] in [[1393]], though it was useless as well. ===Janus=== He was succeeded by the son of Peter the II., [[Janus of Cyprus|Janus]] (1389-[[1432]]), though also called the fat was described as "tall and good looking". He unsuccessfully tried to drive the Genoese from Famagusta. In [[1426]] the [[Mameluks]] raided the island, and Janus met them at [[Khirokitia]]. Apparently the troops had no water, so they drank wine instead and became rather intoxicated. When a Mameluk embassy was sent, it was treacherously killed by Janus' men. The outraged [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] slaughtered the inebriated, enfeebled, soldiers under Janus. They then proceeded to expose the hoax of the levitating cross at the [[monastery]] at [[Stravovouni]], containing a piece deposited by [[St. Helena]] in the [[4th century]]. Janus was taken to Egypt and paraded around backwards on a donkey in humiliation. At the same time according to the chronicle of [[Leontios Makhairas]] Cypriot serfs rebelled against the Franks and established "Re Alexis" as a king in Lefkonoiko (the word Re means king in [[Provençal]]), and "captains" in Morphou, Limassol, Lefka and Peristerona. It took the frankish nobility more than 6 months to defeat the rebels and Re Alexis was eventually hanged. Two years later Janus was ransomed back, and Cyprus was now ruled by the [[Mameluks]]. ===John II=== His son [[John II of Cyprus|John II]] ([[1432]]-[[1458]]), was described as "effeminate, but not unattractive" and was reviled by [[Pope Pius II]] as a vile evil sloth. He was dominated by two women in his life, both [[Greeks|Greek]]; [[Helena Palaeologina]] his wife and [[Marietta of Patras]], his mistress. Supposedly in a fight between these two in the king's presence, the queen bit off her adversary's nose. As the queen was Greek, she was well loved by the Cypriots and the [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus|orthodox church]]. Her daughter Charlotte and her opponent's son [[James II of Cyprus|James]] would play huge roles in the collapse of the [[Lusignan]] dynasty. James "the bastard", as he was called, was well loved by John, who made him archbishop of the island at a very young age. Yet [[Charlotte of Cyprus|Charlotte]] in 1458 was recognized as Queen regent, and James fled to Egypt. The two were said to have had a fairly good relationship, and it is probably very much due to the church that this political conflict arose between them. James convinced the Egyptian Sultan to aid him, promising loyalty to Egypt, and landed, armed, in [[1460]]. ===James=== James won victories over the major forts, including Genoese [[Famagusta]], and was solidly placed on the throne in [[1464]]. Charlotte had unsuccessfully tried to secure aid from outside, including from the pope who was disgusted with her Greek and lack of French. According the legend, James fell in love with his wife [[Caterina Cornaro]] while walking with her uncle who purposely dropped an image of her. The two were wed by proxy, and Caterina was adopted by the Venetian state, securing the passage of the island to the signory. James died in [[1473]], and his short-lived son the next year, and the Venetians were eyed with suspicion. In 1473, the [[Catalans]] on the island formed a revolt supporting [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] of [[Aragon]], that was put down by the Venetians. In [[1479]], the party of Queen Charlotte plotted to assassinate the queen, but it was betrayed and quashed. Due also to the looming threat of the [[Ottoman Turks]], Venice used the Queen's brother to convince her to abdicate the throne in [[1489]], ushering in the Venetian period. ==Sources== Hunt, Sir David (ed.) [[1994]]. ''Footprints in Cyprus''. [[London]]. ==Venetian Period 1489-1571== {{Unreferencedsection|date=January 2008}} [[Caterina Cornaro]] left her kingdom on the doge's ship in 1489, apparently against her will as she was well loved by the inhabitants. She survived almost 20 years after her reluctant abdication, and the rule of Cyprus passed over to the Venetian [[Signoria|Signory]]. Venice had been accumulating land, despite its early success solely as a sea power, and Cyprus came under its jurisdiction. In a model like [[Pericles]] in [[Thucydides]], or [[George Washington]]'s farewell address in American History, the Venetian [[Doge of Venice|Doge]] [[Moncinego]] had long ago warned [[Venice]] not to overextended itself in a land empire. In all of these cases, this advice was of course, ignored. The Signory had great repute in Venice itself, indeed supposedly matching up to the [[Venetian myth]], but in its colonial administration it was corrupt. The island was run by three men; the lieutenant and two councillers collectively known as the three rectors, as well as a captain for the army. The signory feared these men becoming too powerful, so these positions changed every two years. As a result this administration was greedy, lethargic, and overall inadequate, and although taxes were high they were still not enough to run the island. One pilgrim noted that "all the inhabitants of Cyprus are slaves to the Venetians." [[Salt]] was the major item of production on the island in this period, taken from [[Larnaca]]. In earlier times it was used in the cult of [[Aphrodite]], as the salt lake produces around a one inch thick deposit. It was said that Larnaca provided enough salt to fill 34 ships, all of this profit went not to the island, but straight back to Venice. [[Image:Cipro-Famagosta7.jpg|thumb|300px|Venetian walls in Famagusta]] In [[1562]] the [[Greek Cypriot|Greeks]] raised a failed revolt. In [[1566]], [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], ruler of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] was succeeded by his son [[Selim]] "the fool", an epithet given to him by western historians. Suleiman had been advised by his grand vizier to leave Cyprus alone, due to friendly relations with the signory and the prosperity that the Ottomans were enjoying as a result of trade with them. Because it was customary for the new ruler to conquer new territory, and Selim didn't care for the advice of this vizier, he sent an insulting request for cession of the island to the signory. This request claimed for the immediate ceding of the island, citing the condominium of [[649]]-965AD and the debts of James the Bastard to the Caliphate as reasons why this island was the property of the Muslims; this was pure instigation citing these rather bogus reasons. The Venetians prepared for invasion, updating sites as Nicosia, [[Kyrenia]], and [[Famagusta]]. The [[Lusignan]] walls were restored; they were made shorter and thicker to adjust to more formidable [[artillery]] of the period. [[Earth]] was also put on top of the walls, to better handle the impact. [[Nicosia]] indeed was perhaps the vangaurd of military technology at the time. Bastions stationed around the roughly circular plan allowed the gunners collectively full range of 360 degrees. General [[Lala Mustafah]] landed near Larnaca on [[July 1]]st [[1570]]. The writer [[Paruta]] is a good source for the activities of this invasion, and to him I am much indebted for this following information on the invasion. The island suffered from incompetent military leadership; there was only one capable leader on the island who defended Famagusta. Nicosia was defended by the bumbling Matteo [[Dandalo]], who held his troops within the walls leaving Mustafah free range of the island, which he plundered. The Venetians also couldn't rely on the Cypriots themselves, who hated their overbearers. Mustafah, in an unexpected moves, pursued the nobility of the island and attacked Nicosia first. Though [[Nicosia]] had adequate supplies and great architecture, its undoing proved to be its leadership, led by Dandalo. The fort was surrendered after only 6 weeks, perhaps Dandalo thought he himself would get special treatment from the enemy. There was none to be found, and the city was massacred, save for the Cypriot peasants who during the course of the battle had hauled down the Venetian flag and had raised the Ottoman. A [[mosque]] was erected in honor of the deceased standard bearer, who had been the first to set upon the walls. The heads of Dandalo and the other nobles were sent to [[Kyrenia]], which surrendered without a fight. Mustafah next doubled his army to almost 200,000 for the siege of Famagusta, attracting people with promises of booty multiple times better than that of Nicosia. Famagusta was led by the only great leader on the island, the Venetian Marc Antony [[Bragodino]] though the fort itself was undersupplied, and the harvest hadn't been brought in for the year as well. Bragodino had only about 10,000 men defending. The Venetian gunners had to fire sparingly as their powder supply was quickly dwindling, and the best tactic against the enemy were fireworks shot at them. Wealthy Venetains offered financial incentive to those who fought the Turks in single combat. After about a year, the [[ravelin]] fell, and Bragodino surrendered, seeing further defense as useless. He came to agreeable terms with the Turks, securing safe passage of the inhabitants from the island. However, these terms were rescinded; the Venetians say that Mustafa was angry at seeing the pathetic status and numbers of the army that had troubled him while the Ottomans say that the Venetians mistreated Turkish prisoners. The prisoners were kept, and Bragodino himself had his eyes and nose cut off, was flayed alive, and stuffed with hay to be paraded around [[Istanbul]]. Later his body was recovered and brought back to Venice. Good feeling in Istanbul wasn't to be found, as the Turks had suffered a defeat in the battle of [[Lepanto]] in [[1571]], ending Ottoman westward expansion. But the declining empire lived on and ruled the island of Cyprus until [[1878]], the beginning of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] occupation. ==See also== *[[History of Cyprus]] *[[Kingdom of Cyprus]] *[[Cyprus under the Ottoman Empire]] ==Sources== Hunt, Sir David (ed.) 1994. ''Footprints in Cyprus''. London. Cobham, C.D. 1908 (reprint 1969). ''Excerpta Cypria. Materials for a History of Cyprus''. Cambridge. [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/CF5ED5B3EDE71CFEC2256B6B003B1BD3?OpenDocument&languageNo=1 History of Cyprus - Middle Ages by Cypriot Government] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Middle Ages by country]] [[Category:History of Cyprus|Middle Ages]]