Cyrus the Great 800012 226084470 2008-07-16T19:29:21Z BehnamFarid 1499805 /* External links */ Added external link to the news item concerning transfer of the Cyrus Cylinder to the National Museum of Iran in Tehran. {{redirect|Cyrus}} {{Infobox Monarch | name =Cyrus II the Great | title =King of [[Achaemenid Empire|Persia]], King of [[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]], King of [[Median Empire|Media]], King of [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylon]] | image =[[Image:Olympic Park Cyrus.jpg|center|thumb|250px]] | caption = | religion =[[Zoroastrianism]]? | reign =559 BC-529 BC | coronation =[[Anshan]], [[Persis]] | othertitles = | full name = | predecessor =[[Cambyses I of Anshan|Cambyses I]] | successor =[[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]] | consort =[[Cassadane]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] | issue =[[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]] <br>[[Smerdis of Persia|Smerdis]] <br>[[Artystone]] <br>[[Atossa]] <br>Unamed unknown | royal house =[[Achaemenid]] | father =[[Cambyses I|Cambyses I of Persia]] | mother =[[Mandane|Mandane of Media]]? | date of birth =590 BC or 576 BC | place of birth =[[Anshan]], [[Persis]] | date of death =August?, 530 BC or 529 BC | place of death =Along the [[Syr Darya]] | place of burial =[[Pasargadae]] }} {{Campaignbox Wars of Cyrus the Great}} '''Cyrus the Great''' ([[Old Persian language|Old Persian]]: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁,<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghias Abadi|first=R. M.|title=Achaemenid Inscriptions lrm;|edition=2nd edition|publisher=Shiraz Navid Publications|year=2004|location=Tehran|isbn=964-358-015-6|pages=page 19|language=Persian}}</ref> ''Kūruš'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=Ronald Grubb|others=translated into Persian by S. Oryan|title=Old Persian: Grammar, Text, Glossary|isbn=964-421-045-X|year=1384 [[Iranian calendar|AP]]|language=Persian|pages=page 393}}</ref> [[Persian language|modern Persian]]: کوروش بزرگ, ''Kurosh-e Buzurg'' or کوروش کبیر ''Kurosh-e Kabeer'' (c. 590 BC or 576 &mdash; August 529 BC or 530 BC), also known as '''Cyrus II of Persia''' and '''Cyrus the Elder''',<ref>Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' I. IX; see also M.A. Dandamaev "Cyrus II", in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica''.</ref> was a [[Persian people|Persian]] ''[[Shah|Shāhanshāh]]'' ([[Emperor]]). He was the founder of the [[Persian Empire]] under the [[Achaemenid dynasty]]. The empire expanded under his rule, eventually conquering most of [[Southwest Asia]] and much of [[Central Asia]], from [[Egypt]] and the [[Hellespont]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east, to create the largest state the world had yet seen.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amélie |title=The Ancient Near East: C. 3000-330 BC |origyear=1995 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0-4151-6762-0 |pages=pp. 647 |chapter=13 |chapterurl= |quote= }}</ref> During his twenty-nine to thirty year reign, Cyrus fought against some of the greatest states of his time, including the [[Medes|Median Empire]], the [[Lydia|Lydian Empire]], and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]. Cyrus did not venture into [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], as he himself died in battle, fighting the [[Scythians]] along the [[Syr Darya]] in August 529 BC or 530BC.<ref name="date">Cyrus' date of death can be deduced from the last reference to his own reign (a tablet from Borsippa dated to [[12 August]] 530 BC) and the first reference to the reign of his son Cambyses (a tablet from Babylon dated to 31 August); see R.A. Parker and W.H. Dubberstein, ''Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C. - A.D. 75'', 1971.)</ref> He was succeeded by his son, [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]], who managed to conquer Egypt during his short rule. Beyond his nation, Cyrus left a lasting legacy on Jewish [[religion]] (through his Edict of Restoration), [[human rights]], [[politics]], and [[military strategy]], as well as on both [[Eastern world|Eastern]] and [[Western culture|Western civilization]]. ===Etymology=== The ancient [[historian]]s [[Ctesias]] and [[Plutarch]] noted that Cyrus was named from ''Kuros'', the [[sun]], a concept which has been interpreted as meaning "''like the sun''," by noting its relation to the Persian noun for sun, ''khor'', while using ''-vash'' as a suffix of likeness.<ref name="caiscyrus">; [[Plutarch]], ''Artaxerxes'' 1. 3 [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/artaxerx.html]; [[Photius]], ''Epitome of [[Ctesias]]' Persica'' 52 [http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica3.html]</ref> However, some modern historians, such as [[Karl Hoffmann (German historian)|Karl Hoffmann]] and Rüdiger Schmitt of the [[Encyclopædia Iranica]], have suggested the translation "''humiliator of the enemy in verbal contest''."<ref>Schmitt, Rüdiger, ''Encyclopædia Iranica''. Cyrus; The Name, p. [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?Action=Serve&ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v6_articles/cyrus&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html&ReqStrPDFFile=3_v6_515.pdf.gz 515]&ndash;[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?Action=Serve&ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v6_articles/cyrus&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html&ReqStrPDFFile=3_v6_516.pdf.gz 516] (PDF).</ref> In [[Iran|modern Persia]], Cyrus is referred to as Kourosh-e Kabir, and, more recently, as '''Kourosh-e Bozorg''' &mdash; the Persian-derived name for Cyrus the Great. In the [[Bible]], he is known as simply ''Koresh'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: כורש). He is also possibly mentioned in the Qur'an under the title "[[Dhul-Qarnayn]]" ذو القرنين, who conquered lands east and west. ===Dynastic history=== [[Image:Relief cyrus-cropped level.jpg|thumb|A [[bas-relief]] found at Pasargadae shows a winged-figure thought to be Cyrus, depicted with four Assyrian wings, and wearing an Egyptian ''hemhem'' crown, and a Persian dress.]] Similar to other culture-heroes and founders of great empires, [[folk]] traditions abound regarding his family background. According to the [[Herodotus]], he was the grandson of the Median king [[Astyages]] and was brought up by humble herding folk. In another version, he was presented as the son of poor parents who worked in the Median court. These folk stories are however contradicted by his own testimony according to which he was preceded as king of Persia by his father, grandfather and great-grandfather.<ref>Amélie Kuhrt, ''The Ancient Near East: C.3000 - 330 BC'', Routledge Publishers, 1995, p.661, ISBN 0415167620</ref> Out of the many Persian tribes, he was from the [[Pasargadae]]. And was descended from one of its clans, which was the [[Achaemenidae]]. Before he united the Persians and Medes under a single empire, he was the ruler of Anshān, then a vassal kingdom of the Median Empire, in what is now part of [[Fars Province]] in southern [[Iran]]. In this area Cyrus would build [[Pasargadae]], his future capital city. The dynasty had supposedly been founded by [[Achaemenes]] (c. 700 BC?), who was succeeded by his son [[Teispes of Anshan]].<ref>This is the traditional view, based on the [[Behistun Inscription]] and Herodotus. However, some scholars consider that Cyrus was unrelated with Achaemenes or [[Darius the Great]], calling Cyrus' family Teispid instead of Achaemenid; see M. Waters, "Cyrus and the Achaemenids", ''Iran'' 42, 2004 ([http://www.achemenet.com/ Achemenet.com] > ressources > sous presse), with previous bibliography.</ref> Inscriptions indicate that when the latter died, two of his sons shared the throne as [[Cyrus I of Anshan]] and [[Ariaramnes of Persia]]. They were succeeded by their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan and [[Arsames of Persia]]. However, the authenticity of these inscriptions has been called into question, thus blurring the history of Cyrus' predecessors.<ref>Shahbazi, A. Sh., ''Encyclopædia Iranica''. Arsama, p. [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/search/searchpdf.isc?Action=Serve&ReqStrPDFPath=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/pdfarticles/v2_articles/arsama&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/newsite/logs/pdfdownload.html&ReqStrPDFFile=3_v2_546.pdf.gz 546] (PDF).</ref> Cambyses is considered by [[Herodotus]] to be of good family but not a king,<ref>M. Dandamaev, "[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v4f7/v4f7a012.html Cambyses I]". In spite of Herodotus' statements, Cambyses reign is attested in some Cyrus Babylonian inscriptions.</ref> and further notes his marriage to Princess Māndānā, who was the daughter of Princess [[Aryenis|Aryenis of Lydia]] (or of another wife according to [[Christian Settipani]]) and [[Astyages]], king of the Medes. From their union, Māndānā bore only one son, Cyrus II, better known today as Cyrus the Great, whom Cambyses named after the child's grandfather. According to Ctesias, Cyrus the Great married a daughter of Astyages named Amytis, which seems unlikely, as his wife would also be his aunt. A possible explanation is that Astyages married again, and his second wife bore him this daughter.<ref>"It seems inevitable to assume that Astyages had another wife. [...] According to Ctesias of Cnidus, their son Cyrus married a daughter of Astyages. That would be his aunt, which is most unusual." [http://www.livius.org/as-at/astyages/astyages.htm]</ref> Cyrus' first wife, [[Cassandane]], is equally obscure. According to Herodotus and the Behistun Inscription, she bore Cyrus at least two sons, [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]] and [[Smerdis of Persia|Smerdis]].<ref name="cyrus1">Jona Lendering, ''[http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus.html Cyrus]'' (Old Persian Kuruš; Hebrew Kores): founder of the Achaemenid empire. // Herodotus ''Historias'' 3. 2, 30; Behistun 1. 29-30. The Behistun Inscription just states that Cambyses and Smerdis were full brothers, but doesn't mentions Cassandane.</ref> Both sons later separately ruled Persia for a short period of time. Cyrus also had several daughters, of which two, [[Artystone]]<ref name="artystone">''[http://www.livius.org/arl-arz/artystone/artystone.html Artystone]'': Queen of Persia, married to Darius I the Great.</ref> and [[Atossa]], would marry [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]]. The latter is significant, as she gave birth to [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], Darius' successor.<ref name="atossa">''[http://www.livius.org/as-at/atossa/atossa.html Atossa]'': Daughter of the Persian king Cyrus the Great.</ref> ===Early life=== Cyrus was born in 583 BC.<ref name="birthyear">Most sources give either [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=-wikipedia+cyrus+576-BC+OR+BC-576&btnG=Search 576 BC] or [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=-wikipedia+cyrus+590-BC+OR+BC-590 590 BC] as Cyrus' birth year; a conclusive answer is not fully clear.</ref> Little is known of his early years, as the sources detailing that part of his life are few, and have been damaged or lost. Herodotus's story of Cyrus' early life belongs to a genre of legends in which abandoned children of [[nobility|noble birth]], such as [[Oedipus]] and [[Romulus and Remus]], return to claim their royal positions. His overlord was his own grandfather, [[Astyages]], ruler of the powerful Median kingdom. After the birth of Cyrus, Astyages had a dream that his [[Magi]] interpreted as a sign that his grandson would eventually overthrow him. He then ordered his steward [[Harpagus]] to kill the infant. Harpagus, morally unable to kill a newborn, summoned a herdsman of the king named [[Mithridates]] and ordered him to dispose of the child. Luckily for the young boy, the herdsman took him in and raised him as his own.<ref name="harpagus">''[http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/harpagus/harpagus.html Harpagus]'': Median general, 'kingmaker' of the Persian king Cyrus the Great.</ref><ref>''Stories of the East From Herodotus'', [http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=church&book=storieseast&story=birth Chapter V: ''The Birth and Bringing Up of Cyrus''], p. 66&ndash;72. </ref> When Cyrus was ten years old, Herodotus claims that it was obvious that Cyrus was not a herdsman's son, stating that his behavior was too noble. Astyages interviewed the boy and noticed that they resembled each other. Astyages ordered Harpagus to explain what he had done with the baby, and after confessing that he had not killed the boy, the king tricked him into eating his own broiled and chopped son.<ref>''Stories of the East From Herodotus'', p. 79&ndash;80</ref> Astyages was more lenient with Cyrus, and allowed him to return to his biological parents, Cambyses and Mandane.<ref>''Stories of the East From Herodotus'', [http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=church&book=storieseast&story=overthroweth Chapter VI: ''Cyrus Overthroweth Astyages and Taketh the Kingdom to Himself''], p. 84. </ref> While Herodotus' description may be a legend, it does give insight into the figures surrounding Cyrus the Great's early life. ==Rise and military campaigns== ===Median Empire=== [[Image:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The [[Medes|Median Empire]], [[Lydia|Lydian Empire]], and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Chaldean Empire]], prior to Cyrus the Great's conquests.]] {{See|Persian Revolt|Battle of Hyrba|Battle of the Median Border|Siege of Pasargadae Hill|Battle of Pasargadae|Battle of the Pasargadae Plain|Siege of Ecbatana}} After his father's death in 559 BC, Cyrus became king of Anshan. However, Cyrus was not yet an independent ruler. Like his predecessors, Cyrus had to recognize Mede overlordship. During Astyages' reign, the Median Empire may have ruled over the majority of the [[Ancient Near East]], from the [[Lydia]]n frontier in the west to the [[Parthia]]ns and Persians in the east. In Herodotus' version, Harpagus, seeking vengeance, convinced Cyrus to rally the Persian people to revolt against their feudal lords, the Medes. However, it is likely that both Harpagus and Cyrus rebelled due to their dissatisfaction with Astyages' policies.<ref name="harpagus">''[http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/harpagus/harpagus.html Harpagus]'': Mede general, 'kingmaker' of the Persian king Cyrus the Great.</ref> From the start of the revolt in summer 553 BC or early 552 BC, then his first battles taking place in 552 BC, and with the help of Harpagus, Cyrus led his armies against the Medes until the capture of [[Ecbatana]] in 549 BC, effectively conquering the Median Empire. While Cyrus seems to have accepted the crown of Media, by 546 BC, he officially assumed the title of ''King of Persia'' instead. Arsames, who had been the ruler of Persia under the Medes, therefore had to give up his throne. His son, [[Hystaspes]], who was also Cyrus' second cousin, was then made [[satrap]] of Parthia and [[Phrygia]]. Arsames would live to see his grandson become Darius the Great, [[Shahanshah]] of Persia, after the deaths of both of Cyrus' sons. Cyrus' conquest of Media was merely the start of his wars. Astyages had been [[military alliance|allied]] with his brother-in-law [[Croesus]] of Lydia, (son of [[Alyattes II]]), [[Nabonidus]] of Babylon, and [[Amasis II]] of Egypt, who reportedly intended to join forces against Cyrus. ===Lydian Empire and Asia Minor=== {{see|Battle of Pteria|Battle of Thymbra|Siege of Sardis}} [[Image:Croesus.jpg|thumb|right|Croesus in ''Tribute of Croesus'' by [[Claude Vignon]], 1629.]] The exact dates of the Lydian conquest are unknown, but it must have taken place between Cyrus' overthrow of the Mede kingdom (550 BC)) and his conquest of Babylon (539 BC). It was common in the past to give 547 BC as the year of the conquest due to some interpretations of the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]], but this position is currently not much held.<ref>Rollinger, Robert, "[http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/souspresse/annonces/Rollinger-Iran.pdf The Median "Empire", the End of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great Campaign in 547 B.C.]"; Lendering, Jona, "[http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mermnads/547.html The End of Lydia: 547?]".</ref> The Lydians first attacked the Achaemenid Empire's city of [[Pteria (Turkey)|Pteria]] in [[Cappadocia]]. Croesus laid siege to the city, and captured its inhabitants as slaves. Meanwhile, The Persians invited the citizens of [[Ionia]], who were part of the Lydian kingdom, to revolt against their ruler. The offer was rebuffed, and thus Cyrus levied an army and marched against the Lydians, increasing his numbers while passing through nations in his way. The [[Battle of Pteria]] was effectively a stalemate, with both sides suffering heavy casualties by nightfall. Croesus retreated to Sardis the following morning.<ref name="histories1">Herodotus, ''The Histories, [http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.mb.txt Book I]'', 440 BC. Translated by George Rawlinson.</ref> While in Sardis, Croesus sent out requests for his allies to send aid to Lydia. However, near the end of winter, before the allies could unite, Cyrus pushed the war into Lydian territory and besieged Croesus in his capital, [[Sardis]]. Shortly before the final [[Battle of Thymbra]] between the two rulers, Harpagus advised Cyrus to place his [[dromedary|dromedaries]] in front of his warriors; the Lydian horses, not used to the dromedaries' smell, would be very afraid. The strategy worked; the Lydian cavalry was routed. Cyrus defeated and captured Croesus. Cyrus occupied the capital at Sardis, conquering the Lydian kingdom in 546 BC.<ref name="histories1">Herodotus, ''The Histories, [http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.mb.txt Book I]'', 440 BC. Translated by George Rawlinson.</ref> According to Herodotus, Cyrus spared Croesus' life and kept him as an advisor, but this account conflicts with some translations of the contemporary Nabonidus Chronicle, which interpret that the king of Lydia was slain.<ref name="croesus">''[http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mermnads/croesus.htm Croesus]'': Fifth and last king of the Mermnad dynasty.</ref> Before returning to the capital, a Lydian named Pactyes was entrusted by Cyrus to send Croesus' treasury to Persia. However, soon after Cyrus' departure, Pactyes hired mercenaries and caused an uprising in Sardis, revolting against the Persian [[satrap]] of Lydia, Tabalus. With recommendations from Croesus that he should turn the minds of the Lydian people to luxury, Cyrus sent [[Mazares]], one of his commanders, to subdue the insurrection, but demanded that Pactyas be returned alive. Upon Mazares' arrival, Pactyas fled to [[Ionia]], where he had hired mercenaries. Mazares marched his troops into the [[Greece|Greek]] country and captured the cities of [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesia]] and [[Priene]], where Pactyas was captured and sent back to Persia for punishment. Mazares continued the conquest of Asia Minor, but died of unknown causes during his campaign in Ionia. Cyrus sent Harpagus to complete Mazares' conquest of Asia Minor. Harpagus captured [[Lycia]], [[Cilicia]] and [[Phoenicia]], using the technique of building [[earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]] to breach the walls of besieged cities, a method unknown to the Greeks. He ended his conquest of the area in 542 BC, and returned to Persia.<ref name="harpagus">''[http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/harpagus/harpagus.html Harpagus]'': Median general, 'kingmaker' of the Persian king Cyrus the Great.</ref> ===Neo-Babylonian Empire=== {{see|Battle of Opis}} {{see also|Siege of Kapisa}} [[Image:Persia-Cyrus2-World3.png|thumb|400px|right|Superimposed on modern borders, the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus' rule extended approximately from [[Turkey]], [[Israel]], and [[Armenia]] in the west to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], and to the [[Indus River]] in the east. Persia became the largest empire the world had ever seen.]] In 539 BC, towards the end of September, Cyrus' armies, under the command of [[Gubaru]], the governor of [[Guti]]um, attacked [[Opis]] on the [[Tigris]] river and defeated the Babylonians after a minor uprising. With Opis subjugated, the Persians took control of the vast [[canal]] system of Babylonia. On [[October 10]], the city of [[Sippar]] was seized without a battle, with little to no resistance from the populace. It is probable that Cyrus engaged in negotiations with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.<ref>Tolini, Gauthier, ''Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus'', Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s’engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l’armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l’affrontement armé." [http://www.achemenet.com/ressources/enligne/arta/pdf/2005.003-Tolini.pdf p. 10] (PDF)</ref> Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time, and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.<ref>The Harran Stelae H2 - A, and the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] (Seventeenth year) show that Nabonidus had been in Babylon before October 10, 539, because he had already returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of Nissanu 1 [April 4], 539 BCE).</ref> Two days later, on [[October 12]] (Julian calendar; [[October 7]] by the Gregorian calendar), Gubaru's troops entered Babylon, again without any resistance from the Babylonian armies. [[Herodotus]] explains that to accomplish this feat, the Persians diverted the [[Euphrates]] river into a canal so that the water level dropped "to the height of the middle of a man's thigh," which allowed the invading forces to march directly through the river bed to enter at night.<ref>Missler, Chuck, ''The Fall of Babylon Versus The Destruction of Babylon'', [http://www.pre-trib.org/pdf/Missler-TheFallofBabylonVers.pdf p. 2] (PDF)</ref> On [[October 29]], Cyrus himself entered the city of Babylon and arrested Nabonidus. He then assumed the titles of "king of Babylon, king of [[Sumer]] and [[Akkad]], king of the four sides of the world." Prior to Cyrus' invasion of Babylon, the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] had conquered many kingdoms. In addition to Babylonia itself, Cyrus incorporated its subnational entities into his Empire, including [[Syria]] and [[Judea]]. Before leaving Babylon, Cyrus also issued the "Edict of Restoration" ({{Bibleverse||Ezra|1:1-4|31}}), which freed the Jewish exiles by allowing them to return to their native land; this effectively ended the [[Babylonian captivity]]. His wife died on 498 B.C. The return of the exiles re-established the Jewish population in their homeland.<ref>Ancient History Sourcebook: [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/539cyrus1.html Cyrus the Great: ''The Decree of Return for the Jews''], ''The Cyrus Cylinder''.</ref> According to the [[Behistun Inscription]] of Darius the Great, Cyrus' dominions must have comprised the largest empire the world had ever seen. At the end of Cyrus' rule, the Achaemenid Empire stretched from [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in the west to the [[Indus River]] in the east. ==Death== [[Image:Pasargades cyrus cropped.jpg|thumb|196px|Cyrus' [[tomb]] lies in the ruins of [[Pasargadae]], now a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] (2006).]] The details of Cyrus' death can vary by account. The account of [[Herodotus]] from his ''Histories'' provides the second longest detail, in which Cyrus met his fate in a fierce battle with the [[Massagetae]], a tribe from the southern deserts of [[Khwarezm|Kharesm]] and [[Kyzyl Kum|Kizilhoum]] in the southernmost portion of the [[steppe]] regions of modern-day [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]], following the advice of [[Croesus]] to attack them in their own territory.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tomyris.html] "Ancient History Sourcebook: Herodotus: Queen Tomyris of the Massagetai and the Defeat of the Persians under Cyrus"</ref>The Massagetae were related to the [[Scythian]]s in their dress and mode of living; they fought on horseback and on foot. In order to acquire her realm, Cyrus first sent an offer of marriage to their ruler [[Tomyris]], a proposal she rejected. He then commenced his attempt to take Massagetae territory by force, beginning by building bridges and towered war boats along his side of the river [[Araxes]], or Syr Darya, which separated them. Sending him a warning to cease his encroachment in which she stated she expected he would disregard anyway, Tomyris challenged him to meet her forces in honorable warfare, inviting him to a location in her country a day's march from the river, where their two armies would formally engage each other. He accepted her offer, but, learning that the Massagetae were unfamiliar with wine and its intoxicating effects, he set up and then left camp with plenty of it behind, taking his best soldiers with him and leaving the least capable ones. The general of Tomyris's army, which was also her son [[Spargapises]], and 1/3 of the Massagetian troops killed the group Cyrus had left there, and, finding the camp well-stocked with food and the wine, unwittingly drank themselves into inebriation, diminishing their capability to defend themselves when they were then overtaken by a surprise attack. They were successfully defeated, and although he was taken prisoner, Spargapises committed [[suicide]] once he regained sobriety. Upon learning of what had transpired, Tomyris denounced Cyrus' tactics as underhanded and swore vengeance, leading a second wave of troops into battle herself. Cyrus was ultimately killed and his forces suffered massive casualties in what Herodotus referred to as the fiercest battle of his career, and the ancient world. When it was over, Tomyris ordered the body of Cyrus brought to her, then decapitated him and dipped his head in a vessel of blood, in a symbolic gesture of revenge for his bloodlust and the death of her son.<ref>[http://www.physics.uc.edu/~sitko/women.html#Tomyris Tomyris, Queen of the Massagetae, Defeats Cyrus the Great in Battle] Herodotus, ''The Histories''</ref><ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tomyris.html Ancient History Sourcebook: Herodotus: Queen Tomyris of the Massagetae and the Defeat of the Persians under Cyrus]</ref> However, some scholars question this version, mostly when Herodotus says no was there to see the aftermath, but others suggest the persian troops may have later recovered the body, or that Tomyris beheaded a man other than Cyrus. [[Ctesias]], in his ''Persica'', has the longest account which says Cyrus met his death while putting down resistance from the [[Derbices]] infantry, aided by other [[Scythian]] archers and cavalry, plus [[Indian]]s and their elephants. According to him, this event took place north-east of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. An alternative account from [[Xenophon]]'s ''Cyropaedia'' contradicts the others, claiming that Cyrus died peaceably at his capital..<ref>Xenophon, ''Cyropaedia'' VII. 7; M.A. Dandamaev, "Cyrus II", in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', p. 250. See also H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg "[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v6f5/v6f5a023.html Cyropaedia]", in ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', on the reliability of Xenophon's account.</ref> The final version of Cyrus's death comes from [[Berossus]], who only reports Cyrus met his death while warring against the [[Dahae]] archers north-west of the headwaters of the Syr Darya. ===Tomb=== Cyrus' remains were supposedly interred in the city of [[Pasargadae]], where today a tomb still exists which many believe to be his. Both [[Strabo]] and [[Arrian]] give descriptions of the tomb, based on eyewitness reports from the time of Alexander the Great's invasion. Though the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place of Cyrus the Great has remained largely intact; and the tomb has been partially restored to counter its natural deterioration over the years. According to [[Plutarch]], his epitaph said, {{cquote|O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know you will come, I am Cyrus who won the Persians their empire. Do not therefore grudge me this little earth that covers my body.<ref>''Life of Alexander'', 69, in ''Plutarch: The Age of Alexander'', translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (Penguin Classics, 1973), p.326.</ref>}} Cuneiform evidence from Babylon proves that Cyrus died in August 530 BC,<ref name="date">Cyrus' date of death can be deduced from the last reference to his own reign (a tablet from Borsippa dated to 12 Augustus 530) and the first reference to the reign of his son Cambyses (a tablet from Babylon dated to 31 August); see R.A. Parker and W.H. Dubberstein, ''Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C. - A.D. 75'', 1971.</ref> and that his son [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]] had become king. His younger son, Smerdis, died before Cambyses left to invade the eastern front. From Herodotus' account, Cambyses killed his brother to avoid a rebellion in his absence. Cambyses continued his father's policy of expansion, and managed to capture [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] for the Empire, but soon died after only seven years of rule. An imposter named [[Gaumata]], claiming to be Smerdis, became the sole ruler of Persia for seven months, until he was killed by [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]]. Cyrus was praised in the Tanach ({{Bibleverse||Isaiah|45:1-6|31}}), though he was also criticized for believing the false report of the Cuthites, who wanted to halt the building of the Second Temple. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Cyrus in turn stopped the construction of the temple, which would not be completed until 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, the grandson of Queen Esther. ==Legacy== [[Image:Cyrus II le Grand et les Hébreux.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cyrus the Great allowed the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Babylonian captivity|exiles]] to resettle and rebuild [[Jerusalem]], earning him an honored place in Judaism.]] Cyrus was distinguished equally as a [[statesman]] and as a soldier. By pursuing a policy of generosity instead of repression, and by favoring local religions, he was able to make his newly conquered subjects into enthusiastic supporters.<ref>[[Philip Schaff|Schaff, Philip]], The New [[Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]], Vol. III, [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc03/htm/ii.11.xix.htm Cyrus the Great]</ref> Due in part to the political infrastructure he created, the Achaemenid empire endured long after his demise. The rise of Persia under Cyrus's rule had a profound impact on the course of world history. [[Iranian philosophy|Persian philosophy]], [[Persian literature|literature]] and [[Iranic religions|religion]] all played dominant roles in world events for the next millennia. Despite the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] in the 7th century CE by the [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphate]] ([[Arab Empire]]), Persia continued to exercise enormous influence in the Middle East during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], and was particularly instrumental in the growth and expansion of [[Islam]]. Many of the dynasties that followed the Achaemenids ([[Seleucid]], [[Sassanid]], [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]]) have claimed to continue the line begun by Cyrus. [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah]] celebrated the [[2,500 year celebration of Iran's monarchy|2500<sup>th</sup> anniversary of the Iranian monarchy]] in 1971, though it would be [[Iranian Revolution|toppled]] a mere eight years later. Even today many consider him the equal if not the greater than [[Alexander the Great]] in his accomplishment. ===Religion=== {{main|Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition|Cyrus the Great in the Qur'an}} The only known example of his religious policy is his treatment of the [[Jew]]s in Babylon. The Bible records that a remnant of the Jewish population returned to the [[Land of Israel|Promised Land]] from Babylon, following an edict from Cyrus to rebuild the temple. This edict is fully reproduced in the [[Book of Ezra]]. As a result of Cyrus' policies, the Jews honored him as a dignified and righteous king. He is the only [[Gentile]] to be designated as a [[messiah]], a divinely-appointed king, in the [[Tanakh]] ([[Isaiah]] 45:1-6). However, at the time, there was also Jewish criticism of him after he was lied to by the [[Cuthites]], who wanted to halt the building of the [[Second Temple]]. They accused the Jews of conspiring to rebel, so Cyrus in turn stopped the construction of the temple, which would not be completed until 516 BC, during the reign of Darius the Great.<ref>{{cite book | last=Goldwurm | first=Hersh | year=1982 | title=History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era | publisher=[[ArtScroll]] | isbn=0-8990-6454-X | pages=pp. 26 }}</ref> Some contemporary Muslim scholars have suggested that the [[Qur'an]]ic figure of [[Dhul-Qarnayn]] is Cyrus the Great. This theory was proposed by [[Sunni]] scholar [[Abul Kalam Azad]] and endorsed by [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] scholars [[Allameh Tabatabaei]], in his ''[[Tafsir al-Mizan]]'' and [[Makarem Shirazi]] and [[Sunni]] scholar [[Abul Ala Maududi]].<ref>[http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Dhul-Qarnayn/id/1951115 Dhul-Qarnayn: Encyclopedia - Dhul-Qarnayn]</ref> ===Politics and philosophy=== During his reign, Cyrus maintained control over a vast region of conquered kingdoms, achieved partly through retaining and expanding Median [[satrap]]ies. Further organization of newly conquered territories into provinces ruled by [[vassal]] kings called ''satraps'', was continued by Cyrus' successor [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]]. Cyrus' empire demanded only [[tribute]] and [[conscription|conscripts]] from many parts of the realm. Cyrus' conquests began a new era in the age of empire building, where a vast [[superstate]], comprising many dozens of countries, races, religions, and languages, were ruled under a single administration headed by a central government. This system lasted for centuries, and was retained both by the invading [[Seleucid dynasty]] during their control of Persia, and later Iranian dynasties including the Persian [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Wilcox| first = Peter| coauthors = MacBride, Angus| title = Rome's Enemies: Parthians And Sassanid Persians| publisher = [[Osprey Publishing]]| year = 1986| id = ISBN 0850456886| pages = pp. 14 }}</ref> In 1992, he was ranked #87 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. On [[December 10]], [[2003]], in her acceptance of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], [[Shirin Ebadi]] evoked Cyrus, saying: {{cquote|I am an Iranian, a descendant of Cyrus the Great. This emperor proclaimed at the pinnacle of power 2,500 years ago that he 'would not reign over the people if they did not wish it.' He promised not to force any person to change his religion and faith and guaranteed freedom for all. The Charter of Cyrus the Great should be studied in the history of human rights.<ref> Nobel acceptance speech by Shirin Ebadi, "[http://www.nobel.no/eng_lect_2003b.html All Human Beings Are To Uphold Justice]" (translated); accessed 24 August 2006. (The quote is not authentic.)</ref>}} Cyrus' legacy has been felt even as far away as [[Iceland]]<ref>''Jakob Jonson'': "Cyrus the Great in Icelandic epic: A literary study". [[Acta Iranica]]. 1974: 49-50</ref> and colonial [[United States|America]]. Many of the forefathers of the United States of America sought inspiration from Cyrus the Great through works such as [[Cyropaedia]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]], for example, had two personal copies of the book, "which was a mandatory read for statesmen alongside [[Machiavelli]]'s ''The Prince''."<ref>Interview with [[Cliff Rogers]], [[United States Military Academy]] Link: [http://www.spentaproductions.com/Cyrus-the-Great-English/cyruspreview_english.htm]</ref> In a recent segment of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[Nightline]] with [[Ted Koppel]], Ted Koppel mentioned Cyrus the Great, when he was talking about the new documentary film being made in his honor, and had this to say of him: “Cyrus the Great is genuinely one of history's towering figures. America's own founders such as Thomas Jefferson were influenced by Cyrus the Great in the field of [[Human Rights]].”<ref>[[Ted Koppel]], [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[Nightline]]</ref><ref>See last 3 minutes of the videoclip to view [[Ted Koppel]]'s statement: Link: [http://www.spentaproductions.com/Cyrus-the-Great-English/cyruspreview_english.htm]</ref> ====Cyrus Cylinder==== [[Image:Cyrus cilinder.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The Cyrus Cylinder artifact was inscribed in Babylonian [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] at Cyrus' command after his conquest of Babylon.]] [[Image:Tharoor and Cyrus Cylinder.jpg|thumb|250px|right|United Nations Under-Secretary General [[Shashi Tharoor]] with replica of the ''Cyrus Cylinder'' at UN headquarters, [[New York]]]] {{main|Cyrus Cylinder}} The cylinder has in the past been considered as the world's first known charter of [[human rights]], as there are passages in the text have been translated and interpreted as expressing Cyrus’ respect for humanity. The text appeared to promote a form of religious tolerance and freedom,<ref>[http://www.cfiwest.org/newhorizons/whatis.htm ''What is New Horizons and Why''], Center For Inquiry West (CFI) Website, Retrieved January 12, 2007.</ref> to allow Cyrus' subjects to continue worshipping their gods, despite his own religious beliefs, and even to restore the temples of foreign gods. This interpretation of Cyrus as an early champion of human rights played an important role in political propaganda of [[Shah]] [[Mohammed Reza Pahlavi]]. To support it, some parts of the text have even been falsely translated.<ref>Livius.org: The Cyrus Cylinder (including transcript and translation), http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus_cylinder.html See also the references cited there.</ref> In 1971 the [[United Nations]] published a translation of the secular parts of the document in all the official U.N. languages, and a replica of the Cyrus Cylinder is on display at [[United Nations headquarters]] in [[New York City]] as a tribute to Cyrus' display of respect and tolerance.<ref name="UN">United Nations Press Release 14 October 1971 ([http://www.livius.org/a/1/inscriptions/cyrus.pdf SG/SM/1553/HQ263]).</ref> Another replica had been on display on the top floor of the Shahyad monument in South Tehran, to symbolize the connection between Cyrus and Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. However, most scholars now disagree with the concept of the Cylinder as a Charter of Human Rights, and have argued that such a concept is alien to the historical context.<ref>A. Kuhrt "The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid imperial policy" in ''Journal of Studies of the Old Testament'' 25 pp. 83-97; [[R.J. van der Spek]], "Did Cyrus the Great introduce a new policy towards subdued nations? Cyrus in Assyrian perspective" in ''Persica'' 10 pp. 273-285; Accepted as majority interpretation in [[Pierre Briant]], ''Histoire de l' empire perse'' (1995).</ref> After all, Mesopotamia has a long tradition, dating back to the third millennium BC, of kings making similar declarations when beginning their reigns.<ref>The British Museum calls it [http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/c/cyrus_cylinder.aspx A Declaration of Good Kingship].</ref> Despite the requests from the opponents who wished the organization not using the text, the UN information service in Vienna announced that the inscription from the Orient will be held as "first human rights document".<ref>Matthias Schultz, "[http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/0,1518,564395,00.html Der falsche Friedensfurst]" ("The False Ruler of Peace") in: ''''Der Spiegel'''' 7 July 2008.</ref> === Family tree === {{Cyrus-tree}} {{s-start}} {{s-hou|[[Achaemenid dynasty]]||c. 590 BC or 576 BC||529 BC}} {{s-bef|rows=`|before=[[Cambyses I of Anshan|Cambyses I]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]]|years=559 BC&ndash;529 BC}} {{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses II]]}} |- {{s-bef|before=[[Astyages]]}} {{s-ttl|title=[[List of kings of Persia|King of Media]]|years=550 BC&ndash;529 BC}} {{end}} ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== <div class="references-small"> '''Ancient sources''' <!--'''Babylonian Sources'''--> *The [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] of the [[Babylonian Chronicles]] *The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] <!--'''Greek Sources'''--> *[[Herodotus]] (''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'') *[[Ctesias]] (''Persica'') <!--'''Hebrew Sources'''--> *The biblical books of ''[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]'', ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'', ''[[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]'' and ''[[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]'' *[[Flavius Josephus]] (''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'') *''The Prayer of Nabonidus'' (one of the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]) *Herodotus; Church, Alfred J., ''Stories of the East From Herodotus'' (1891). ISBN 0-7661-8928-7 *[[Xenophon]] (''[[Cyropaedia]]'') *[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/index.html Justin, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus''] {{en icon}} *[[Diodorus Siculus]] (''[[Bibliotheca historica]]'') *Fragments of [[Nicolas of Damascus]] *[[Athenaeus]] (''[[Deipnosophistae]]'') *[[Strabo]] (''[[History]]'') '''Modern sources''' *Moorey, P.R.S., ''The Biblical Lands'', VI. Peter Bedrick Books, New York (1991). ISBN 0-87226-247-2 *Frye, Richard N., ''The Heritage of Persia''. Weidenfeld and Nicolson (1962), 40, 43-4, 46-7, 70, 75, 78-90, 93, 104, 108, 122, 127, 206-7. ISBN 1-56859-008-3 *Olmstead, A. T., ''History of the Persian Empire [Achaemenid Period]''. University of Chicago Press (1948). ISBN 0-226-62777-2 *Palou, Christine; Palou, Jean, ''La Perse Antique''. Presses Universitaires de France (1962). * ''[[:fr:Référence:Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité (Christian Settipani)|Nos ancêtres de l'Antiquité]]'', 1991, [[Christian Settipani]], p. 146, 152 and 157 </div> ==External links== {{commonscat|Cyrus the Great}} * A short sample of the documentary film ''In Search of Cyrus the Great'', directed by Cyrus Kar, in production, hosted by [http://www.savepasargad.com/audio-visual2/Kurosh-Englisg.htm International Committee to Save the Archaeological Sites of Pasargadae] (9 min 58 sec). * Xenophon, ''Cyropaedia: the education of Cyrus'', translated by Henry Graham Dakyns and revised by F.M. Stawell, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2085 Project Gutenberg]. '''Iran Chamber Society''' *[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/cyrus/cyrus.php Historic Personalities - Cyrus the Great] *[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/xenophon/cyropaedia_xenophon_book1.php Cyropaedia of Xenophon] '''Other''' *[http://www.persiandna.com/his_cyrus.htm PersianDNA] Cyrus The Great - Persian Empire & The Greatest King of the History *[http://www.irantooth.com/iranpics/cyrus_the_great.htm Pictures of Tomb of Cyrus the Great] *[http://www.kingscalendar.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?action=viewnews&id=141 Seder Olam Rabbah, Part 2 &ndash; Solomon's Temple, and Zerrubabel] *[http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/cyrus_cylinder.html Cyrus Cylinder] Full Babylonian text of the Cyrus Cylinder as it was known in 2001; translation; brief introduction *[http://www.ghiasabadi.com/manshur.html Cylinder of Cyrus, Persian text منشور کوروش هخامنشی] *[http://www.understanding-islam.com/rq/q-028.htm Who Was Zulqarnain?] *[http://www.cyrusgreat.com Cyrus The Great] <!-- Metadata (see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]) --> * [http://www.savepasargad.com/european_languages.htm International Committee to Save the Archaeological Sites of Pasargadae]. * [http://www.persiandna.com/images/tomb.jpg Images of Cyrus the Great's tomb] * ''Cyrus Cylinder to be returned to Iran'', Cultural Heritage News Agency, [[Tehran]], June 25, 2008, [http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section=2&id=7423]. <br /> {{List of Kings were named the Great of the World}} {{Persondata |NAME=Cyrus the Great |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Cyrus II of Persia; Cyrus the Elder; Kourosh |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Achaemenid Shah of Persia |DATE OF BIRTH=576 or 590 BC |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]], [[Persian Empire]] |DATE OF DEATH=July 529 BC |PLACE OF DEATH=Along the [[Syr Darya]] }} [[Category:6th century BC births]] [[Category:529 BC deaths]] [[Category:Achaemenid kings]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:كورش الكبير]] [[br:Kirus II]] [[bg:Кир II (Персия)]] [[ca:Cir II el Gran]] [[cv:II-мĕш Кир]] [[cs:Kýros II.]] [[da:Kyros 2.]] [[de:Kyros II.]] [[el:Κύρος]] [[es:Ciro II el Grande]] [[eo:Kiro la 2-a (Persio)]] [[fa:کوروش دوم]] [[fr:Cyrus II]] [[gl:Ciro II]] [[ko:키루스 2세]] [[hr:Kir Veliki]] [[id:Koresh Agung]] [[it:Ciro II di Persia]] [[he:כורש]] [[ka:კირუშ დიდი]] [[ku:Kûruş II]] [[la:Cyrus II (rex Persarum)]] [[lt:Kyras Didysis]] [[hu:Nagy Kürosz]] [[mr:सायरस द ग्रेट]] [[ms:Kurusy Agung]] [[nl:Cyrus II]] [[ja:大キュロス]] [[no:Kyros den store]] [[pl:Cyrus II Wielki]] [[pt:Ciro II da Pérsia]] [[ro:Cyrus al II-lea cel Mare]] [[ru:Кир II Великий]] [[simple:Cyrus the Great]] [[sk:Kýros II.]] [[sl:Kir II.]] [[sr:Кир Велики]] [[fi:Kyyros II Suuri]] [[sv:Kyros II]] [[th:พระเจ้าไซรัสมหาราช]] [[vi:Cyrus Đại đế]] [[tg:Куруши кабир]] [[uk:Кир Великий]] [[yi:כורש]] [[zh:居鲁士二世]]