Danaus chrysippus
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{{Taxobox
| name = Plain Tiger
| status =
| image = Danaus chrysippus.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption =
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Lepidoptera]]
| superfamilia = [[Papilionoidea]]
| familia = [[Nymphalidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Danainae]]
| tribus = [[Danaini]]
| genus = ''[[Danaus (genus)|Danaus]]''
| species = '''''D. chrysippus'''''
| binomial = ''Danaus chrysippus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Plain Tiger''' ('''''Danaus chrysippus''''') or - outside Asia - '''African Monarch''' is a common butterfly which is widespread in [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]. It belongs to the [[Danainae|danaine]] ("Crows and Tigers") [[subfamily]] of the brushfooted butterfly [[family (biology)|family]] [[Nymphalidae]].
It is believed to be one of the first butterflies to be used in art. A 3500 year old [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[fresco]] in [[Luxor]] features the oldest illustration of this species.<ref>Larsen (1994)</ref>
The Plain Tiger can be considered the archetypical danaine of [[India]]. Accordingly, this species has been studied with in greater detail than other members of its subfamily occurring in India.
==Description==
[[Image:Plain tiger m up.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Male ''D. c. chrysippus'', recently emerged form chrysalis]]
[[Image:Plain tiger f up.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Female ''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Mumbai]], India]]
The Plain Tiger is a medium sized [[butterfly]] with a wingspan of about 7–8 cm. The body is black with many white spots. The wings are tawny the upper side being brighter and richer than the underside. The apical half of the fore wing is black with a white band. The hind wing has 3 black spots around the center. The hind wing has a thin border of black enclosing a series of semicircular white spots.
Background color and extent of white on the forewings varies somewhat across the wide range; see [[#Systematics and taxonomy|Systematics and taxonomy]] below.
The male Plain Tiger is smaller than the female, but more brightly colored. In addition, male danaines have a number of secondary sexual characteristics. In the case of the Plain Tiger, these are:
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* The male has a pouch on the hindwing. This spot is white with a thick black border and bulges slightly. It is a cluster of specialised [[scent scale]]s used to attract females.
* The males possess two brush-like organs which can be pushed out of the tip of the abdomen.
==Distribution==
The range of the Plain Tiger extends from Africa and southern [[Europe]], eastwards via [[Sri Lanka]], India, and [[Myanmar]] to [[China]] and [[Sulawesi]]. It is a very common species.
===Systematics and taxonomy===
Despite the external similarity, the Common Tiger is not closely related to this species. Three [[subspecies]] are considered valid in a 2005 review:<ref name = smithetal2005>Smith ''et al.'' (2005)</ref>
* ''Danaus chrysippus chrysippus''
:Asia, [[Mediterranean]] region, northern tropical Africa
* ''Danaus chrysippus alcippus'' - formerly ''D. c. aegyptius''
:From the [[Cape Verde Islands]] through tropical Africa to [[Yemen]] and [[Oman]]. Browner with broader white forewing spots.
* ''Danaus chrysippus orientis'' - formerly ''D. c. liboria''
:[[Saint Helena]], southern tropical Africa to [[South Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Comoros]], [[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarenes]]. Small white forewing spots.
''D. c. alcippus'' is well on the way of becoming a distinct species.<ref name = smithetal2005 />
On the other hand, the former subspecies ''petilia'' is nowadays recognized as a good species, the [[Lesser Wanderer]]. More enigmatic<ref>See Smith ''et al.'' (2005)</ref> is the status of the former subspecies (or [[form (zoology)|form]]s) ''dorippus'' and ''bataviana''. These are tentatively also regarded as a distinct species, the "[[Dorippus Tiger]]" (''Danaus dorippus'').
However, it appears (from analysis of [[mtDNA]] [[DNA sequence|sequence]]s, which are only inherited from the mother) that the Dorippus Tiger is the product of an ancient lineage of ''Danaus'' [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridizing]] with Plain Tiger females.<ref name = smithetal2005 /> As the Plain Tiger is known to be [[parasite|parasitized]] at least occasionally by ''[[Spiroplasma]]'' [[bacteria]] which selectively kill off male hosts,<ref>Jiggins ''et al.'' (2000)</ref> a subsequent scarcity of Plain Tiger males might have led to this hybridization and the [[evolution]] of the Dorippus Tiger. From the color pattern of this species, it can be assumed that the ancient lineage had no black apex on the forewings, as this character is still absent in ''D. dorippus''.
The presumed subspecies ''cratippus'' most likely belongs to either the Lesser Wanderer or the Dorippus Tiger, but confirmation of its [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] status requires more research. In any case, these three species are closely related; their closest relatives, in turn, might be the [[Soldier Butterfly|Soldier]] (''[[Danaus eresimus|D. eresimus]]'') and [[Queen Butterfly|Queen]] (''D. gilippus'') butterflies.<ref name = smithetal2005 />
Several local [[form (zoology)|form]]s have been described from Asia:
* ''Danaus chrysippus chrysippus'' f. ''alcippoides''
:The upper hindwing is more or less very white; about half of the individuals have a second submarginal spot in the forewing. Occasionally found in Southeast Asia, very rarely in India.
* ''Danaus chrysippus chrysippus'' f. ''gelderi''
:The upper hindwing has white markings. Occasionally found on [[Sulawesi]].
* ''Danaus chrysippus chrysippus'' f. ''bowringi''
:The upper hindwing has a subapical band composed of somewhat larger spots, and an additional forewing spot as in f. ''alcippoides'' is always present. Found throughout the eastern parts of this subspecies' range.
On the other hand, the plethora of named [[taxa]] from Africa are apparently F<sub>1</sub> or F<sub>2</sub> hybrids between the Plain Tiger subspecies (the contact zone of which is in the general area of [[Uganda]]) and/or ''D. dorippus'':
* ''Danaus chrysippus'' × ''alcippoides''
:is ''D. c. chrysippus'' × ''D. c. alcippus''
* ''Danaus'' × ''transiens'', ''Danaus'' × ''klugii'', ''Danaus'' × ''albinus'' and ''Danaus'' × ''semialbinus''
:are ''D. c. alcippus'' × ''D. dorippus''
==Ecology==
It is found in every kind of country including the desert (pending availability of food) and right up into the mountains till 9000 feet. Primarily a butterfly of open country and gardens. Unlike the [[Common Tiger]], a related species, is least common in damp, forested, hilly regions. It is a somewhat migratory species.
This butterfly is perhaps the commonest of Indian butterflies and is a familiar sight to practically everyone on the subcontinent. It flies from dawn to dusk, frequenting gardens, sipping from flowers and, late in the day, fluttering low over bushes to find a resting place for the night.
As usual for [[Diurnal animal|diurnal]] butterflies, this species rests with its wings closed. When basking it sits close to the ground and spreads its wings with its back to the sun so that the wings are fully exposed to the sun's rays.
===Defense against predators, mimicry===
The Plain Tiger is protected from attacks due to the unpalatable [[alkaloid]]s ingested during the larval stages. The butterfly therefore flies slowly and leisurely, generally close to the ground and in a straight line. This gives a would-be [[predator]] ample time to recognise and avoid attacking it. Inexperienced predators will try attacking it, but will learn soon enough to avoid this butterfly as the alkoloids in its body cause vomiting.
The butterfly also has a tough, [[leather]]y skin to survive such occasional attacks. When attacked it fakes death and oozes nauseating liquid which makes it smell and taste terrible. This encourages the predator to release the butterfly quickly. The Plain Tiger thus has the ability to recover "miraculously" from predator attacks that would kill most other butterflies.
The protection mechanisms of the Plain Tiger, as of the other danaines, and indeed of all colorful unpalatable butterflies, result in predators learning this memorable aspect at first hand. Predators soon associate the patterns and habits of such butterfly species with unpalatability to avoid hunting them in future.
This advantage of protection has led to a number of edible butterfly species, referred to as "mimics", evolving to resemble inedible butterflies, which are referred to as the "model". The resemblance is not only in color, shapes, and markings, but also in behavioural and flight patterns. This form of mimicry - where an edible species mimics an inedible species - is known as [[Batesian mimicry]].
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The mimics can resemble the models very closely. In some cases, it requires examination in hand and reference to field guides to tell them apart. The Plain Tiger is specifically mimicked by the following butterflies:
* [[Indian Fritillary]] (''Argyreus hyperbius'') females
* [[Danaid Eggfly]] (''Hypolimnas misippus'' forma ''inaria'' females.
The following butterflies have a general resemblance common to both the Plain Tiger and the Common Tiger:
* [[Leopard Lacewing]] (''Cethosia cyane'') males and females
* [[Indian Tamil Lacewing]] (''Cethosia nietneri mahratta'') males and females
* [[Common Palmfly]] (''Elymnias hypermnestra'') females
The similarity between the Plain and Common Tigers makes them [[Müllerian mimicry|Müllerian mimics]], as the adverse experience a predator makes with either species will also protect the other.
<gallery>
image:Argyreus hyperbius1.jpg|Female [[Indian Fritillary]] (''Argyreus hyperbius'') in a butterfly garden in [[Tokyo]], Japan-
Image:Danaid eggfly pair.jpg|[[Danaid Eggfly]] (''Hypolimnas misippus'') at [[Chikmagalur]], India. Male (right) and f. ''inaria'' female.
image:RN009 Cethosia cyane.jpg|[[Leopard Lacewing]] (''Cethosia cyane'') in [[Namdapha National Park]], India
Image:Tamil Lacewing2 before.jpg|Male [[Indian Tamil Lacewing]] (''Cethosia nietneri mahratta'') at [[Amboli]], India
</gallery>
===Life history===
The Plain Tiger breeds throughout the year in India, except in the [[Himalayas]] where it is seasonal. This presumabnly applies in a similar way to the other [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] parts of its range too.
'''Egg'''<br/>
The female Plain Tiger perches on the upperside of a leaf and, curling its [[abdomen]] around the edge, lays an egg on the underside. Only one egg is laid per leaf to avoid overcrowding of the caterpillars. The egg is silvery white, shiny, tall, [[bullet]]-shaped with an apical point and ribbed sides.
[[Image:Plain tiger moat.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Plain Tiger caterpillar making "[[moat]]" to feed during the first instar]]
'''Caterpillar'''<br/>
After the caterpillar hatches, its first meal is the eggshell itself. It lives its entire [[larva]]l life on the lower side of the leaves. During the first few days it has a very interesting manner of feeding: It will take up a spot on the underside of the leaf and nip a complete circle around itself in the lower [[cuticle]] of the leaf. By doing this it stops the poisonous [[sap]] of its host plant from flowing into the area inside the circle. It then proceeds to eats the lower surface of this area, leaving the upper cuticle intact.
As it grows, it eats both the lower and upper cuticle of the circle thus leaving smallish circular holes in the leaves of its host plant. When its [[mandible]]s are large enough it eats the complete leaf by gnawing at the edges.
The caterpillar is uniformly cylindrical. Its body is covered with bands of black and white interspersed with thick, yellow, dorsolateral spots. The most striking characteristics are the 3 pairs of long and black [[tentacle]]-like appendages. The first pair is moveable and also the longest. The tentacles are present on the 3rd, 6th and 12th segments. The head is shiny, smooth and has alternating black and white semicircular bands. The legs and prolegs are black and the [[proleg]]s have white bands at their bases.
'''Pupa'''<br/>
The [[pupa]] hangs freely from the support. It is widest at the 7th abdominal segment where it has a double chain of extremely tiny golden and black beads. There are tiny golden spots on the shoulders and wing-cases. The rest of the pupa is pale green with a smooth surface. The pupa is light pink when formed among dry or unnatural objects.
<gallery>
Image:Plain tiger egg.JPG|Egg at [[Mananpur|MNP]], [[Mumbai]]
Image:Plain tiger cat.JPG|Older caterpillar
Image:Plain tiger pupa.jpg|Fresh pupa at BKC, Mumbai
Image:Danauschrysippus pupa sec.jpg|Pink pupa due to pupation among inanimate objects.
</gallery>
===Larval food plants===
The Plain Tiger's larval host plants are from several families,<ref>HOSTS (2007)</ref> most importantly [[Asclepiadoideae]] ([[Apocynaceae]]):
* ''[[Asclepias]]'' – milkweeds (recorded on ''[[Asclepias cancellata|A.cancellata ]]'', ''[[Asclepias coarctata|A. coarctata]]'', ''[[Asclepias curassavica|A. curassavica]]'', ''[[Asclepias fulva|A. fulva]]'', ''[[Asclepias kaessneri|A. kaessneri]]'', ''[[Asclepias lineolata|A. lineolata]]'', ''[[Asclepias physocarpa|A. physocarpa]]'', ''[[Asclepias reflexa|A. reflexa]]'', ''[[Asclepias scabrifolia|A. scabrifolia]]'', ''[[Asclepias semilunata|A. semilunata]]'', ''[[Asclepias stenophylla|A. stenophylla]]'', ''[[Asclepias swynnertonii|A. swynnertonii]]'', ''[[Asclepias syriaca|A.syriaca ]]'')
* ''[[Aspidoglossum interruptum]]''
* ''[[Calotropis]]'' – mudar (recorded on ''[[Calotropis gigantea|C. gigantea]]'', ''[[Calotropis procera|C. procera]]'')
* ''[[Cryptolepis buchananii]]''
* ''[[Cynanchum]]'' (recorded on ''[[Cynanchum abyssinicum|C. abyssinicum]]'', ''[[Cynanchum acutum|C. acutum]]'', ''[[Cynanchum altiscandens|C. altiscandens]]'', ''[[Cynanchum amplexicaule|C. amplexicaule]]'', ''[[Cynanchum carnosum|C. carnosum]]'', ''[[Cynanchum floribundum|C. floribundum]]'', ''[[Cynanchum sublanceolatum|C. sublanceolatum]]'')
* ''[[Gomphocarpus fruticosus]]''
* ''[[Kanahia laniflora]]''
* ''[[Leichardtia australis]]''
* ''[[Leptadenia hastata]]''
* ''[[Marsdenia leichhardtiana]]''
* ''[[Metaplexis japonica]]''
* ''[[Oxystelma pulchellum]]''
* ''[[Pentatropis]]'' (recorded on ''[[Pentatropis atropurpurea|P. atropurpurea]]'', ''[[Pentatropis quinquepartita|P. quinquepartita]]''
* ''[[Pergularia daemia]]''
* ''[[Periploca linearifolia]]''
* ''[[Pleurostelma cernuum]]''
* ''[[Secamone]]'' (recorded on ''[[Secamone afzelii|S. afzelii]]'', ''[[Secamone parvifolia|S. parvifolia]]'', ''[[Secamone platystigma|S. platystigma]]''
* ''[[Stapelia gigantea]]''
* ''[[Stathmostelma]]'' (recorded on ''[[Stathmostelma gigantiflorum|S. gigantiflorum]]'', ''[[Stathmostelma pedunculatum|S. pedunculatum]]'')
* ''[[Tylophora]]'' (recorded on ''[[Tylophora stenoloba|T. stenoloba]]'', ''[[Tylophora sylvatica|T. sylvatica]]'')
Host plants from other families include ''[[Dyerophytum indicum]]'' ([[Plumbaginaceae]]), ''[[Ficus]]'' ([[Moraceae]]; recorded on ''[[Ficus laevis|F. laevis]]'', ''[[Ficus racemosa|F. racemosa]]''), ''[[Ipomoea]]'' ([[Convolvulaceae]]; recorded on ''[[Ipomoea alba|I. alba]]'', ''[[Ipomoea bona-nox|I. bona-nox]]''), ''[[Lepisanthes rubiginosa]]'' ([[Sapindaceae]]) as well as some [[Euphorbiaceae]], [[Malvaceae]], [[Poaceae]], [[Rosaceae]] and [[Scrophulariaceae]].
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Plain_Tiger.jpg|Male ''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Hubballi]], India. Note additional black hindwing pouch
Image:Plain tiger f un.jpg|Female ''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Mumbai]], India
Image:Plain tiger variant.jpg|Rare variant with reduced black. ''D. c. chrysippus'', Mumbai, India
Image:Plain Tiger I IMG 0007.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Kolkata]], [[India]]
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) on Eupatorium odoratum at Jayanti, Duars, West Bengal W Picture 337.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'' on ''[[Eupatorium odoratum]]'' at [[Jayanti]] in [[Buxa Tiger Reserve]] in [[Jalpaiguri]] district of [[West Bengal]], [[India]].
Image:Plain Tiger I IMG 4686.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Kolkata]], [[India]]
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 155.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'' at [[Sindhrot]] in [[Vadodara]] District of [[Gujarat]], [[India]].
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 009 Plain Tiger.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'' at [[Sindhrot]] in [[Vadodara]] District of [[Gujarat]], [[India]].
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus) at Sindhrot near Vadodara, Gujrat Pix 040.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'' at [[Sindhrot]] in [[Vadodara]] District of [[Gujarat]], [[India]].
Image:Plain Tiger I IMG 4687.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus'', [[Kolkata]], [[India]]
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus)- Male in Hyderabad, AP W 227.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus''- Male in [[Hyderabad, India]].
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus)- Male in Hyderabad, AP W 225.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus''- Male in [[Hyderabad, India]].
Image:Plain Tiger (Danaus chrysippus)- Male in Hyderabad, AP W 224.jpg|''D. c. chrysippus''- Male in [[Hyderabad, India]].
</gallery>
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
* {{aut|Evans}}, W.H. (1932): ''The Identification of Indian Butterflies'' (2nd edition). Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India.
* {{aut|Gaonkar}}, Harish (1996): ''Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India (including Sri Lanka) - A Biodiversity Assessment of a threatened mountain system.'' Centre for Ecological Sciences, IISc, Bangalore, India & Natural History Museum, London, UK.
* {{aut|Gay}}, Thomas; Kehimkar, Isaac & Punetha, J.C.(1992): ''Common Butterflies of India''. WWF-India and Oxford University Press, Mumbai, India.
* {{aut|HOSTS}} (2007): [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/projects/hostplants/ A Database of the World's Lepidopteran Hostplants}. Retrieved 2007-AUG-01.
* {{aut|Jiggins}}, F.M.; Hurst, G.D.D.; Jiggins, C.D.; Schulenburg, J.H.G.v.D. & Majerus, M.E.N. (2000): The butterfly ''Danaus chrysippus'' is infected by a male-killing ''Spiroplasma'' bacterium. ''Parasitology'' '''120'''(5): 439–446. <small>{{DOI|10.1017/S0031182099005867}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* {{aut|Kunte}}, Krushnamegh (2005): ''India - A Lifescape: Butterflies of Peninsular India.'' Universities Press, Hyderabad, India. <small>ISBN 81-7371-354-5 </small>
* {{aut|Larsen}}, Torben (1994): [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199405/butterflies.of.egypt.htm Butterflies of Egypt]. ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'', issue 5 (September/October): 24-27.
* {{aut|Smith}}, David A.S.; Lushai, Gugs & Allen, John A. (2005): A classification of ''Danaus'' butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) based upon data from morphology and DNA. ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|Zool. J. Linn. Soc.]]'' '''144'''(2): 191–212. <small>{{DOI|10.1111/j.1096-3642.2005.00169.x}}</small> (HTML abstract)
* {{aut|Wynter-Blyth}}, M.A. (1957): ''Butterflies of the Indian Region''. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India.
==See also==
{{commons}}
*[[Mimic]]
*[[Danainae]]
*[[Nymphalidae]]
*[[List of butterflies of India]]
*[[List of butterflies of India (Nymphalidae)]]
*[[List of butterflies of India (Danainae)]]
[[Category:Danaus]]
[[Category:Butterflies and moths of Asia]]
[[Category:Insects of Africa]]
[[fr:Petit monarque]]
[[nl:Kleine monarchvlinder]]