Decline of Buddhism in India 1335588 226024143 2008-07-16T14:15:04Z 213.130.121.43 /* Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara */ {{buddhism}} The '''Decline of Buddhism in India''', in the land of its birth occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. <ref name="Thai14"> Promsak, pg.14</ref> [[Buddhism]] was established in the area of ancient [[Magadha]] and [[Kosala]] by [[Gautama Buddha]] in the 6th century BCE, in what is now modern [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]]. <ref name="Merriam155"> Merriam-Webster, pg. 155-157</ref> Buddhism, over the next 1500 years became the region's dominant belief system, spreading across the [[Indian sub-continent]] (see [[History of Buddhism]]). After the death of [[Gautama Buddha]], Buddhism saw rapid expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central [[India]]. <ref name="Merriam155"/> The [[Mauryan]] Emperor [[Ashoka]] (304-232 BCE) and later monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia through religious ambassadors. Hindu monarchs endorsed the religion (viewing it as their own.) ''National Geographic'' reads, "''The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.''"<ref> (January 2008, VOL. 213, #1) </ref> Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, such as [[Faxian]], [[Xuanzang]], [[I Ching (monk)|I-ching]], Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]'', especially in the wake of the [[White Hun]] invasion. <ref name="Merriam155"/> A continuing decline occurred after the fall of the [[Pala Empire|Pala]] dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors. <ref name="Merriam155"/> Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century. In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India from the influence of [[Anagarika Dharmapala]], Kripasaran Mahasthavir[http://www.box.net/public/5yq0vn6uxz], [[B. R. Ambedkar|Dr. B. R. Ambedkar]] and [[Tenzin Gyatso]]. ==Decline of Buddhism under various governments== ===The Sungas=== Following the Mauryans, [[Pusyamitra]] [[Sunga]] is linked in legend with the [[persecution of Buddhists]] and a resurgence of a form of [[Hinduism]] that forced Buddhism outwards to [[Kashmir]], [[Gandhara]] and [[Bactria]]. There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.<ref name="Sarvastivada"> Sarvastivada pg 38-39</ref> A Buddhist tradition holds him as having taken steps to check the spread of Buddhism as "the number one enemy of the sons of the [[Saka|Sakya's]]<ref>Gautama Buddha was held to be from the tribe of the Sakya's (Alt terms: Saka/Shakya) and his title Sakyamuni means "sage of the Sakas".</ref> and a most cruel persecutor of the religion".<ref name="Sarvastivada"/> The ''[[Divyavadana]]'' ascribes to him the razing of ''[[stupas]]'' and ''[[viharas]]'' built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 [[dinar]]as upon the heads of Buddhist monks (''[[bhiksu]]s'') and describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka.<ref name="ashok"> Ashok, pg 91-93</ref> This account has however been described as "exaggerated".<ref name="ashok"/> Historian [[Romila Thapar]] writes that the Asokavadana legend is, in all probability, a "Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas", and reflects the fact that, with the declining influence of Buddhism in the Imperial court, Buddhist monuments and institutions would receive less attention. <ref>Thapar, Romila. ''Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas'', Oxford University Press, 1960, p. 200</ref> The accuracy of the Buddhist texts that record Pushyamitra’s persecution of Buddhists has been debated by historians. The first accounts appear two centuries after Pushyamitra's reign in ''[[Ashokavadana|Asokâvadâna]]'' and the ''Divyâvadâna''. [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] states that it is possible that the original brick stupa built by Ashoka was destroyed by Pusyamitra and then restored by his successor Agnimitra.<ref>Marshall, Sir John. "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN-10: 8185204322, p. 38</ref> Archaeological evidence is scarce and uncertain.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/deorkothar/index.html Article on Deokothar Stupas possibly being targeted by Pushyamitra]</ref>Following Ashoka’s sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Sungas but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them were: the ''Saravastivadins'', ''Mahasargikas'', ''Sthaviravadha'', and ''Yogacara''. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools shortly after the fall of the Mauryans. <ref name="ashok"/> Traditional Hinduism is said by some writers to have competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism <ref name="ashok"/><ref name="Sarvastivada"/> in the [[gangetic plains]] while Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings.<ref name="ashok"/> ====Contribution to Buddhism==== However to many scholars, Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at [[Bharhut]].<ref>Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, ''A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayan'', Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556, p. 223</ref> An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] records the construction of the temple as follows: "''The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra''" So then this further means that the Sungas were in support of Buddhism. Another inscription reads: "''The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine''."<ref> [http://www.buddhanet.net/bodh_gaya/bodh_gaya02.htm "A Good Place for Striving - Bodhgaya from 50 BCE to 500 CE"] </ref> <ref> [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/bar.htm ''Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions''] By B.M. Barua, "The Indian Historical Quarterly", Vol. VI, No. 1, MARCH, 1930, pp. 1-31 </ref> ===Guptas=== Buddhism saw a brief revival under the [[Gupta]]s. By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in [[Central Asia]] and along the [[Silk Road]] as far as [[China]]. It continued to prosper in [[Gandhara]] under the [[Shahi]] kingdom. ===White Huns=== Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the [[6th century]] following the [[White Hun]] invasion, who followed their own religions such as [[Tengri]], [[Nestorian|Nestorian Christianity]], and [[Manichean]]. Their [[Saivite]] King, [[Mihirakula]] (who ruled from 515 CE), suppressed Buddhism as well. He did this by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day [[Allahabad]], before his son reversed the policy. ===Harsha=== In the North and west the collapse of [[Harsha]]vardana's kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the rise of the martial [[Rajputs]] clans across the [[gangetic plain]]s. It also marked the end of Buddhist ruling clans, along with a sharp decline in royal patronage. This carried on until a revival under the [[Pala Empire]] in the Bengal region. ===Buddhism in Southern India=== In the south of India while there was no overt persecution of [[Buddhists]] at least two [[Pallava]] rulers Simhavarma and Trilochana are known to have destroyed [[Buddhist]] stupas and have had Hindu temples built over them. However, Bodhidharma, a patriarch of [[Zen Buddhism]] of was a Brahmin prince from the Pallava dynasty. [[Nagarjuna]], the founder of Mahayana Buddhism, was a Brahmin from southern India. The [[Satavahanas]] were worshipers of Buddha as well as other Hindu gods such as Krishna, Shiva, Gauri, Indra, the sun and moon.<ref> Mahajan, P. 400 ''Ancient India'' </ref> Under their reign Amaravati, the historian Durga Prasad notices that Buddha had been worshiped as a form of Vishnu.<ref> P. 116, ''History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D.'' </ref> Furthermore a vigorous [[Hindu]] revival of [[Vaishnavite]] Hinduism in the region led to a sharp decline of Buddhism.[http://www.metta.lk/english/buddhism-ap.htm?bcsi_scan_40D940621B5BD15F=0&bcsi_scan_filename=buddhism-ap.htm] ===Muhammad bin Qasim=== In AD 711, [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered the [[Sindh]] bringing Indian societies into contact with Islam. He succeeded partly because [[Raja Dahir|Dahir]] was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled over a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] majority.<ref name="Gier"> Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006[http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/mm.htm], Last accessed December 11 2006</ref><ref name="Chachnama"> The Chach-Nama. English translation by Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg. Delhi Reprint, 1979 [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/index.jsp?serv=pf&file=12701030&ct=3 Online Version last accessed 3 October 2006]</ref> [[Chach of Alor]] and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist [[Rai Dynasty]].<ref name="Gier"/> The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated [[Raja Dahir]] in alliance with the [[Jat people|Jat]]s and other Buddhist governors. His campaign's success is ascribed to the support of Buddhists and the people of [[Indian caste system|lower castes]] like Jats, [[Meds (tribe)|Meds]] and [[Bhutto (tribe)|Bhutto]] tribes.<ref name="Chachnama"/> The [[Chach Nama]] records a couple of instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Nerun]]<ref name="Schimmel"> Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen - Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, January 1, 1980, ISBN 90-04-06117-7, pg. 4</ref> as well as the incorporation of the religious elite into the ruling administration such as the allocation of 3% of the government revenue was allocated to the Brahmins.<ref name="Gier"/> As a whole, the non-Muslim populations of conquered territories were treated as [[People of the Book]] and granted [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] religions the freedom to practice their faith in return for payment of the poll tax ([[jizya]]).<ref name="Gier"/> They were then excused from military service or payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects - [[Zakat]].<ref name="Appleby292"> Appleby, R Scott & Martin E Marty, Fundamentalisms Comprehended, University of Chicago Press, May 1, 2004, ISBN 0-226-50888-9 pg 290-292</ref> The jizya enforced was a graded tax, being heaviest on the elite and lightest on the poor.<ref name="Appleby292"/> While [[proslytization]] occurred, the social dynamics of Sind were no different from other Muslim regions such as [[Egypt]], where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.<ref name="Appleby292"/> ===Mahmud of Ghazni=== By the 10th century [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the Hindu-[[Shahi]]s, effectively removing Hindu influence and ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia, as well as the [[Punjab region]]. He demolished both stupas and temples during his numerous campaigns across North-Western India, but left those within his domains and [[Afghanistan]] alone, even as [[al-Biruni]] recorded Buddha as the prophet "[[Burxan]]".<ref>[http://www.berzinarchives.com/e-books/historic_interaction_buddhist_islamic/history_cultures_18.html The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE)]</ref> Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been an [[iconoclasm|iconoclast]].<ref>Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of India Before the Mohammedan Invasion:... By Faxian, Sykes (William Henry) pg.?? </ref> Hindu and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and destroyed, and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.<ref> How to Prepare for the Sat II: World History By Marilynn Hitchens, Heidi Roupp, pg. ??</ref> ===Palas=== In the East under the [[Pala]]s in [[Bengal]], Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread to [[Bhutan]] and [[Sikkim]]. The [[Pala]]s created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist art. [[Mahayana]] Buddhism flourished under the Palas between the [[8th century|8th]] and the [[12th century]], before it collapsed at the hands of the attacking [[Sena dynasty]]. However some scholars believe that they were also [[Shaivism|Shaivaite]] judging by the image of [[Shiva]] and His [[Nandi|ox]] on their coins and the etymology of their names.<ref> P. xlvii ''Alberuni's India. An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030.'' by Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Bīrūnī; Eduard Sachau </ref> Art of Shiva also exists in temples such as the Melakadambur in Bengal where Nataraja and his bull are found.<ref> P. 53 ''Tourist Guide to Tamil Nadu'' By Unknown UK Publisher, V. Subburaj, Various </ref> They had also dedicated shrines to [[Vishnu]].<ref> ''The Smithsonian: A Guide to Its National Public Facilities in Washington, D.C.'' - Page 273 by Charlotte L. Sclar </ref> Figures of Vishnu were substantial in number in the Pala Era.<ref> P. 39 ''Arts of India'' By Krishna Chaitanya </ref> Other than figures of Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva there were also those of [[Sarasvati]].<ref> P. 38 ''Arts of India'' By Krishna Chaitanya </ref> ===Muhammad of Ghor=== Muhammad attacked the North-Western regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] many times. Gujarat later fell to Muhammad of Ghor's armies in [[1197]]. [[Muhammad of Ghor]]'s armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Buddhist university of [[Nalanda]].<ref>Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381</ref> In [[1200]] [[Muhammad Khilji]], one of [[Qutb-ud-Din]]'s generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] armies, such as the one at [[Vikramshila]]. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries near [[Benares]]. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]] and [[South India]]. <ref>Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)</ref> ===The Mongols=== In [[1215]], [[Genghis Khan]] conquered [[Afghanistan]] and devastated the Muslim world. In [[1227]], after his death, his conquest was divided. [[Chagatai]] then established the [[Chagatai Khanate]], where his son [[Arghun]] made Buddhism the state religion. At the same time, he came down harshly on [[Islam]] and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son [[Ghazan]] who converted to Islam and in 1295 changed the state religion. After his reign, and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate, little mention of [[Buddhism]] or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html The Ilkhanate]</ref> ===Timur (Tamarlane)=== Timur was a 14th-century [[warlord]] of [[Turco-Mongol]] descent <ref name="EI">B.F. Manz, ''"Tīmūr Lang"'', in [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Online Edition, 2006</ref><ref>The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, "Timur", 6th ed., Columbia University Press: ''"... Timur (timoor') or Tamerlane (tăm'urlān), c.1336–1405, <u>Mongol conqueror</u>, b. Kesh, near Samarkand. ..."'', ([http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0848795.html LINK])</ref><ref>[http://secure.britannica.com/ebc/article-9277364 "Timur"], in [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]: ''"... [Timur] was a member of the Turkic Barlas clan of Mongols..."''</ref><ref>[http://secure.britannica.com/ebc/article-9273044 "Baber"], in [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]: ''"... Baber first tried to recover Samarkand, the former capital of the empire founded by his Mongol ancestor Timur Lenk ..."''</ref>, conqueror of much of Western and central Asia, and founder of the [[Timurid Empire]]. [[Timur]] destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished. <ref>Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer By Jeannette Mirsky</ref><ref>Ethnicity & Family Therapy edited by Nydia Garcia-Preto, Joe Giordano, Monica McGoldrick</ref> ===Mughals=== [[Mughal]] rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques.<ref>War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet By Eric S. Margolis page 165</ref> Mughal rulers like [[Aurangzeb]] destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with Islamic mosques. <ref>India By Sarina Singh</ref> ==Ideological and financial causes== The period between the 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. Some Hindu rulers resorted to military means in an effort to suppress Buddhism. However it is seen that the evolution of Hindu ideology influenced by Buddhisms was more important factor for the growth of Hinduism.<ref name="BBC"> [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_2.shtml Online BBC News Article: Religion & Ethics - Hinduism, last accessed 2 January 2007]</ref> Hinduism became a more "intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many ordinary worshippers" because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns.<ref name="BBC"/> ===Xuanzang's Report=== Much of what we know about the state of Buddhism in the second half of the first millennium CE comes from the 7th century Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]], who traveled widely and documented his journey. Although he found many regions where Buddhism was still flourishing, he also found many where it had sharply and startlingly declined, giving way to [[Jainism]] and a Brahmanical order.<ref name="BIA">[http://www.indiaprofile.com/religion-culture/buddhisminandhra.htm Buddhism in Andhra]</ref> Xuanzang compliments the patronage of [[Harsha]]vardana. He reported that Buddhism was popular in [[Kanyakubja]] (modern day [[Uttar Pradesh]]), where he noted "an equal number of Buddhists and heretics" and the presence of 100 monasteries and 10,000 bhikshus along with 200 "Deva" (Hindu) temples.<ref>Omvedt, Gail. ''Buddhism in India: Challenging Brahmanism and Caste''. Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd: 2003. pg. 153-160</ref>. He found a similarly flourishing population in [[Udra]] (modern [[Orissa]]). He found a mixed population in [[Kosala]], homeland of [[Nagarjuna]], and in [[Andhra]], and [[Dravida]] which today roughly correspond to the modern day Indian states of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="miyaki">[http://www.upf.es/materials/huma/central/historia/xinamon/docums/budxidoc/miyaki.htm miyaki<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In a region he calls Konkanapura, which may be [[Kolhapur]] in southern [[Maharashtra]], he found great numbers of Buddhists coexisting with a similar number of non-Buddhists, and a similar situation in norther Maharashtra. In [[Sindh]] he finds a large [[Theravada]] population. He reports a fair number of Buddhists in what is now Pakistan. In Dhanyakataka (today's [[Vijayawada|Vijayawada]]), he found a striking decline, with Jainism and [[Shaivism]] ascendant. In [[Bihar]], site of a number of important landmarks, he also found a striking decline and relatively few followers, with Hinduism and Jainism predominating. He also found relatively few Buddhists in [[Bengal]], [[Kamarupa]] (modern [[Assam]]). He reported no Buddhist presence in [[Konyodha]], few in [[Chulya]] (in the Tamil region), and few in [[Gujarat]] and [[Rajasthan]], except in [[Valabhi]], where he found a large [[Theravada]] population. During the reign of the [[Chalukya dynasty]], Xuanzang reported that numerous Buddhist stupas in regions previously ruled by Buddhist-sympathetic [[Andhras]] and [[Pallava]]s were "ruined" and "deserted".These regions came under the control of the [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavite]] [[Eastern Chalukyas]], who were not favorable to Buddhism and did not support the religion<ref>F. R. Hemingway, Godavari district gazetteer, 2000, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614615, pg 20</ref>.Xuanzang's report also mentions that, in the 7th Century, [[Shashanka]] of the Kingdom of [[Gouda]] ([[Bengal]]), was expanding his influence in the region in the aftermath of the fall of the [[Gupta Empire]]. He is blamed by Xuanzhang and other Buddhist sources for the murder of Rajyavardhana, a Buddhist king of [[Thanesar]]. Xuanzang writes that Shashanka destroyed the [[Bodhi tree]] of enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and replaced Buddha statues with Shiva Lingams. However, it has been claimed that Xuanzhang had a Buddhist bias in favor of the buddhist rulers such as [[Harsha]]vardhana and that his account may therefore be slanted.<ref>[http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0122.htm Banglapedia]</ref>. ===Philosophical divergence with Adi Shankara=== {{see also|Buddhism and Hinduism}} In 9th century CE, Buddhist philosophers started to lose ground against the [[Advaitha]] philosophy of [[Adi Shankara]]. [[Shankara]] debated with Buddhist monks and raised issues with Buddhist philosophy. The resurgence of Hinduism with the ideas of Shankaracharya led to the reduction of royal patronage of the Buddhist monks. As political patronage failed, it came under increasing pressure from [[Hindu]]ism and the revival movements of [[Adi Shankara]]. [[Shakyamuni Buddha]] eventually came to be venerated as a manifestation of the Hindu god [[Vishnu]]. Literary evidences point towards an absorption of Buddhist elements by Hindu culture over a period of centuries.<ref name="wink1"> Wink 347-349</ref> Anti-Buddhist propaganda was also reaching its peak during the 8th century when Shankara modeled his monastic order after the Buddhist Sangha.<ref name="wink1"/> An upsurge of Hinduism had taken place in North India by the early eleventh century as illustrated by the influential Sanskrit drama ''Prabodhacandrodaya'' in the [[Chandela]] court; a devotion to [[Vishnu]] and an allegory to the defeat of Buddhism and Jainism.<ref name="wink1"/> The population of North India had become predominantly [[Shaiva]], [[Vaishnava]] or [[Shakta]].<ref name="wink1"/> By the 12th century a lay population of Buddhist hardly existed outside the monastic institutions and when it did penetrate the Indian peasant population it was hardly discernible as a distinct community.<ref name="wink2"> Wink, 334-347</ref> Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in some cases based on social class.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} ===Islam=== The Arabic invaders described Indian Pagans as But-parast, and idol-breakers as but-shikan. The word "but" is derived from Buddhism, but the Arabs used it for "Indian paganism" in general.<ref>Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001</ref> When the Arabs arrived in Sind there were only glimpses of Buddhism nor any evidence of a provincial government in control of the Buddhists.<ref name="Wink3"> Wink 348-350</ref> During the seventh to thirteenth centuries when Islam arrived it replaced Buddhism as the great cosmopolitan trading religion in many places accompanied by a consolidation of the communal peasant religions of Hinduism.<ref name="Wink3"/> The Tibetan scholar of the seventeenth century Tarnatha writes that during the time of the Sena king ''Stag-gzigs'' ([[Turkish people|Turks]]) had begun to appear on horses and that monasteries had been fortified with troops stationed in them; however, they were overrun and monks at Uddandapura were massacred, the monastery razed and replaced by a new fort and further north-east Vikramshila was destroyed as well.<ref> Wink 147-148</ref>. Hardly a contemporary evidence however exists on the destruction of Buddhist monasteries.<ref name="Wink3"/> Brief Muslim accounts and the one eye witness account of Dharmasmavim in wake of the conquest during the 1230s talks about abandoned viharas being used as camps by the Turukshahs.<ref name="Wink3"/> Later historical traditions such as Taranathas are mixed with legendary materials and summarized as "the Turukshah conquered the whole of Magadha and destroyed many monasteries and did much damage at Nalanda, such that many monks fled abroad" thereby bringing about a sudden demise of Buddhism with their destruction of the Viharas.<ref name="Wink3"/> Buddhism lingered longer in Iran than South Asia and was officially professed under fifty years of Mongol conquest.<ref name="Wink3"/> With the conversion of Ghazan to Islam in 1295, the backlash resulted in the destruction of many Buddhist places of worship and the further migration of monks into Kashmir.<ref name="Wink3"/> Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example, Udantpur's monasteries were destroyed by in 1197 Mohammed-bin-Bakhtiyar and the town was renamed.<ref> P. 41 ''Where the Buddha Walked'' By S. Muthiah </ref> Taranatha in his ''History of Buddhism in India'' (dpal dus kyi 'khor lo'i chos bskor gyi byung khungs nyer mkho) of 1608 C.E. <ref>http://www.thdl.org/texts/reprints/bot/bot_06_02_03.pdf Chap. XXVII-XLIV, Synopsis by Nalinaksha Dutt, Accounts of [[Pala]], [[Sena]] kings, [[Vikramshila]], [[Turushka]]s and status of Buddhism in India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia</ref>, gives an account of the last few centuries of Buddhism, mainly in Eastern india. His account suggests aconsiderable decline but not an extinction of Buddhism in India in his time. ====Sufis and the Bhakti movement==== When [[Islam]] arrived in India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or integration with, the already present religions. Under [[Sufi]] influence, the pressures of caste, and with no political support structure left in place to resist social mores, many converted to Islam in the Bengal region. After the [[Mongol]] invasions of Islamic lands across Central Asia, many [[Sufi]]s also found themselves fleeing towards India and around the environs of [[Bengal]]. In Bengal, their influence, caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with converting Buddhists, a lack of Buddhist political power, [[Hinduism]]'s resurgence through movements such as the [[Advaita]] and the [[bhakti movement]], all contributed to a significant realignment of beliefs that relegated Buddhism in India to the peripheries. ==Survival of Buddhism in India== At the beginning of the modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream Indian society. Some tribal peoples living in the territory of modern India did continue to practice Buddhism. In Bengal, the [[Baul]]s still practice a [[syncretic]] form of Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is also evidence of small communities of Indian [[Theravada]] Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of [[Chittagong]] hill tracts among the indigenous [[Chakma]] people up to the present. <ref>[http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/B_0641.htm BANGLAPEDIA: Buddhism<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Though they are under increasing pressure from mostly [[Muslim]] Bengali settlers. There was genocide of the Chakma and Buddhists by Islamists in East Pakistan.<ref> P. 12 ''Genocide of Hindus & Buddhists in East Pakistan (Bangladesh).'' By A. Roy </ref> The Chakma spiritual practices are a blend of Buddhism/Vaishnavism.<ref> P. 150 ''Tripura District Gazetteers'' By Tripura (India) </ref> Buddhist institutions flourished in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the [[Barua]] (though practicing Vaishnava/Hindu elements<ref> ''Contemporary Buddhism in Bangladesh'' By Sukomal Chaudhuri </ref><ref> P. 180 ''Indological Studies'' By Bimala Churn Law </ref>), a community of Bengali/Magadh descent that migrated to [[Chittagong]] region. Indian Buddhism also survives among [[Newars]] of Nepal. Buddhism survived in [[Gilgit]] and [[Baltistan]] until 13-14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby [[Swat Valley]]. In [[Ladakh]] region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives to this day. The historic prevalence and history of Tibetan Buddhism in the above mentioned Northern regions of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] is reported in the [[Rajatarangini]] of [[Kalhana]] written sometime during 1147–1149 CE. In [[Tamilnadu]] and [[Kerala]], Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At [[Nagapattinam]], in [[Tamil Nadu]], Buddhist idols were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the [[Chudamani Vihara]] stood until they were destroyed by the [[Jesuits]] in 1867. <ref>[http://www.buddhistnews.tv/current/tamil-nadu-100704.php]</ref> In the South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer. ==Revival== {{see|Buddhism in India|Dalit Buddhist movement}} On [[pilgramage]] to [[Bodh Gaya]] in 1891, the [[Sri Lanka]]n Buddhist leader [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] was shocked to find the temple in the hands of a [[Saivite]] priest, the Buddha image transformed into a Hindu icon and Buddhists barred from worship.<ref name="Oreilly"> Sean O'Reilly, James O'Reilly, ''Pilgrimage: Adventures of the Spirit'', Travelers' Tales, 2000,ISBN 1885211562 pg 81-82</ref> The Buddhist revival then began in India, when he founded the [[Maha Bodhi Society]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ahir |first=D.C. |title=Buddhism in Modern India |year=1991 |publisher=Satguru |id=ISBN 81-7030-254-4 }}</ref><ref name="Oreilly"/> The organization's initial efforts were for the purpose of resuscitation of Buddhism in India and of restoring the ancient Buddhist shrines at [[Bodh Gaya]], [[Sarnath]] and [[Kushinagar|Kushinara]].<ref>[http://mahabodhisociety.com/ Mahabodhi Society]</ref> The Buddhist renaissance inaugurated by Anagarika Dharmapala through his Mahabodhi Movement is also described as "conservative" for it held the Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India in the then current mood of Hindu-Buddhist brotherhood.<ref> [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:KmztZbMKPKIJ:www.sasnet.lu.se/EASASpapers/19SwapnaBhattacharya.pdf+A+Close+View+of+Encounter+between+British+Burma+and+British+Bengal A Close View of Encounter between British Burma and British Bengal]</ref> The organization's initial efforts were to restore various Buddhist shrines that had been neglected under [[Hinduism|Hindu]] administration, and to open to the public various Buddhist sites and temples that had been destroyed in various periods of [[Islam|Muslim]] invasion. Later in the 1950's [[Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar]] pioneered the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in India. Dr. Ambedekar saw conversion to Islam and to Christianity as a factor contributing to the "denationalisation" of India.<ref> Dr. Ambedkar and untouchability: Leader of the Untouchables, Architect of the Indian Constitution By Christopher Jaffrelot (page 122)</ref> The revival movement of Buddhism in India underwent a major change when after publishing a series of books and articles arguing that Buddhism was the only way for the untouchables to gain equality, Ambedkar publicly converted on [[October 14]], [[1956]] in [[Nagpur]] and then in turn led a mass-conversion ceremony for over 380,000 [[dalit]]s. Many other such mass-conversion ceremonies organized since and has become a politically charged issue.<ref>{{cite web | last = Pritchett | first = Frances | date = [[2006-08-02]] | url = http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/timeline/1950s.html | title = Columbia University | format = PHP | accessdate = 2006-08-02}}</ref> Since Ambedkar's conversion, numerous similar many more people from different castes have converted to Buddhism. Many Dalits employ the term "Ambedkar(ite) Buddhism" to designate the Buddhist movement, which started with Ambedkar's conversion. <ref>{{cite web |title=Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur |url=http://www.maren-bellwinkel.de/artikel/ambedkarbuddhism.pdf |author=Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp |year=2004 }}</ref> in 1959 [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]] transitioned from [[Tibet]] to India and set up the [[government of Tibet in Exile]] in [[Dharamsala]], India, <ref>The Dalai Lama: A Policy of Kindness By Sidney Piburn (page 12)</ref> which is often referred to as "Little [[Lhasa]]." Tibetan exiles numbering several thousand have since settled in the town. Most of these exiles live in Upper Dharamsala, or McLeod Ganj, where they established monasteries, temples and schools. The town is sometimes known as "Little [[Lhasa]]", after the Tibetan capital city, and has become one of the centres of Buddhism in the world. ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== *{{cite web | url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/BUDDHISM/DECLINE.HTM | title=The Decline of Buddhism in India | publisher= Washington State University | accessdate=2006-12-23 }} *{{cite book | last =Dhammika | first =S. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Edicts of King Ashoka | publisher =Buddhist Publication Society | date =1993 | location =Kandy, Sri Lanka | pages = | url =http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decline_of_Buddhism_in_India&action=edit&section=26 | doi = | id = ISBN 955-24-0104-6 }} * Promsak Jermsawatdi, ''"Thai Art with Indian influence"'', 2003, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 8170170907 *{{cite book | last =Doniger | first =Wendy | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions | publisher =Encyclopedia Britanica | date =2000 | location = | pages =1378 | url = | doi = | id =ISBN 0877790442}} * Charles (EDT) Willemen, Bart Dessein, Collett Cox, ''"Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholastism"'', 1998, Brill Academic Publishers * Ashok Kumar Anand, ''"Buddhism in India"'', 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069 * André Wink, ''"Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World"'', 2004, BRILL, ISBN 90041023 ==See also== *[[History of Buddhism]] *[[History of Buddhism in India]] *[[Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu]] *[[History of India]] *[[Buddhism in Kashmir]] *[[Religion in India]] *[[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]] *[[Bodh Gaya]] *[[Harsha of Kashmir]] *[[Dalit Buddhist movement]] *[[Shakyamuni Buddha]] *[[Ashoka]] *[[Pusyamitra Sunga]] *[[Koenraad Elst]] == External links == *Archives of Alexander Berzin: [http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/x/nav/n1.html_1636116253.html Historical Cultural and Comparative Studies] (including discussion of Buddhist History and Interactions between Buddhism and Islam) *[http://www.ambedkar.org/ambcd/19A.Revolution%20and%20Counter%20Rev.in%20Ancient%20India%20PART%20I.htm Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India by Bodhisattva Dr. B. R. Ambedkar] *[http://www.buddhistpilgrimage.info/downfall.htm Devastation and Downfall of Buddhism in India: extract from Buddhist Pilgrimage, by Bro Chan Khoon San] {{Buddhism topics}} [[Category:Demographic history of India]] [[Category:History of Buddhism]] [[Category:Buddhism in India]] [[ja:インドにおける仏教の弾圧]]