Democracy 7959 226170110 2008-07-17T03:41:26Z A.Cython 6463349 it is not questionable! it has sources! if you disagree go to the talk pages! {{otheruses6|Democracy (disambiguation)|Democratic Party}} [[Image:Election MG 3455.JPG|thumb|right|Voting is an important part of the democratic process.]] {{Democracy}} '''Democracy''' is a system of government by which political sovereignty is retained by the people and exercised directly by citizens. In modern times it has also been used to refer to a constitutional republic where the people have a voice through their elected representatives. It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''δημοκρατία'' ({{Audio-IPA|Ell-Dimokratia.ogg|[''dimokratia'']}}), "popular government"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2324422 Demokratia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus]</ref> which was coined from ''δήμος'' (''dēmos''), "people" and ''κράτος'' (''kratos''), "rule, strength" in the middle of the 5th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably [[Classical Athens|Athens]].<ref name="BBC1"> Democracy is people who rule the government directly.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/greeks/greekdemocracy_01.shtml BBC History of democracy]</ref> In political theory, ''democracy'' describes a small number of related [[List of forms of government|forms of government]] and also a [[political philosophy]]. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of 'democracy',<ref> [http://www.economist.com/markets/rankings/displaystory.cfm?story_id=8908438 Liberty and justice for some] at [[The Economist|Economist.com]]</ref> there are two principles that any definition of democracy . The first principle is that all members of the society have equal access to power and the second that all members enjoy universally recognised freedoms and liberties.<ref name="AristotlePol1317b"/><ref name="BKMIT"> R. Alan Dahl, I. Shapiro, J. A. Cheibub, ''The Democracy Sourcebook'', MIT Press 2003, ISBN 0262541475, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8THIuSkiqgC Google Books link]</ref><ref name="BKHenaff">M. Hénaff, T. B. Strong, ''Public Space and Democracy'', University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 0816633878</ref> There are several varieties of democracy, some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others.<ref>G. F. Gaus, C. Kukathas, ''Handbook of Political Theory'', SAGE, 2004, p. 143-145, ISBN 0761967877, [http://books.google.com/books?id=RGisaLxA6eMC Google Books link] </ref><ref>''The Judge in a Democracy'', Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 26, ISBN 069112017X, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC Google Books link]</ref> However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances such as the [[separation of powers]], then a branch of the system of rule is able to accumulate power in a way that is harmful to democracy itself.<ref name="Barak40">A. Barak, ''The Judge in a Democracy'', Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 40, ISBN 069112017X, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC Google Books link]</ref><ref>T. R. Williamson, ''Problems in American Democracy'', Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 36, ISBN 1419143166, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NrUlR8nc9Q8C Google Books link]</ref><ref>U. K. Preuss, "Perspectives of Democracy and the Rule of Law." ''Journal of Law and Society'', 18:3 (1991). pp. 353-364</ref> The "[[majority rule]]" is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the [[minority rights|rights of a minority]] to be abused by the "[[tyranny of the majority]]". An essential process in representative democracies are competitive [[elections]], that are fair both substantively<ref>Substantively fairness means equality among all citizens in all respects i.e. equality in chances, in starting point etc.</ref> and procedurally<ref>Procedural fairness means that the rules of the elections are clear and set in advance</ref>. Furthermore, [[freedom (political)|freedom of political expression]], [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press]] are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests.<ref name="Barak27">A. Barak,''The Judge in a Democracy'', Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 27, ISBN 069112017X, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC Google Books link]</ref><ref>H. Kelsen, ''Ethics'', Vol. 66, No. 1, Part 2: Foundations of Democracy (Oct., 1955), pp. 1-101</ref> [[Popular sovereignty]] is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term "democracy" as shorthand for [[liberal democracy]], which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, [[rule of law|equality before the law]], the [[right to petition]] elected officials for redress of grievances, [[due process]], [[civil liberties]], [[human rights]], and elements of [[civil society]] outside the government. In the [[United States]], [[separation of powers]] is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], the dominant philosophy is [[parliamentary sovereignty]] (though in practice [[judicial independence]] is generally maintained). In other cases, "democracy" is used to mean [[direct democracy]]. Though the term "democracy" is typically used in the context of a political [[state]], the principles are also applicable to private [[organization]]s and other groups. Democracy has its origins in [[Ancient Greece]].<ref name="BKDunn1992">John Dunn, ''Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC - 1993 AD'', Oxford University Press, 1994, ISBN 0198279345</ref><ref name="BKRaaflaud2007">Kurt A. Raaflaub, Josiah Ober, Robert W. Wallace, ''Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece'', University of California Press, 2007, ISBN 0520245628, [http://books.google.com/books?id=6qaSHHMaGVkC Google Books link]</ref> However other cultures have significant contributed to the evolution of democracy such as [[Ancient Rome]]<ref name="BKDunn1992"/>, Europe<ref name="BKDunn1992"/>, and North and South America.<ref name="isbn0-449-90496-2">{{cite book |author=Weatherford, J. McIver |title=Indian givers: how the Indians of the America transformed the world |publisher=Fawcett Columbine |location=New York |year=1988 |pages=117 - 150 |isbn=0-449-90496-2 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Democracy has been called the "last form of government" and has spread considerably across the globe.<ref>"The Global Trend" chart on [http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=130&year=2007 Freedom in the World 2007: Freedom Stagnation Amid Pushback Against Democracy] published by [[Freedom House]]</ref> [[Suffrage]] has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant [[immigration]], and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. {{Forms of government}} ==Forms of democracy== {{Main|Democracy (varieties)}} ===Representative=== [[Representative democracy]] involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or [[constituency]]), or represent the entire electorate proportionally [[Proportional representation|proportional]] systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as [[referendum]]s. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in their interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. ====Parliamentary democracy==== [[Parliamentary democracy]] where government is appointed by parliamentary representatives as opposed to a 'presidential rule' by decree dictatorship. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.<ref>Keen, Benjamin, A History of Latin America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980.</ref><ref>Kuykendall, Ralph, Hawaii: A History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1948.</ref><ref>Mahan, Alfred Thayer, "The United States Looking Outward," in The Interest of America in Sea Power. New York: Harper & Bros., 1897.</ref><ref>Brown, Charles H., The Correspondents' War. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1967. </ref><ref>Taussig, Capt. J. K., "Experiences during the Boxer Rebellion," in Quarterdeck and Fo'c'sle. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963</ref><ref>Hegemony Or Survival, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 0-8050-7400-7</ref><ref>Deterring Democracy, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 0374523495</ref><ref>Class Warfare, Noam Chomsky Black Rose Books ISBN 1-5675-1092-2</ref> ====Liberal democracy==== A [[Liberal democracy]] is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the [[rule of law]], and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see [[civil liberties]]). ===Direct Democracy=== [[Direct democracy]] is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue (i.e., voting).<ref>[http://www.themercury.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3985561 Article on direct democracy by Imraan Buccus]</ref> Most direct democracies to date have been weak forms, relatively small communities, usually [[city-state]]s. However, some see the extensive use of [[referendum]]s, as in [[California]], as akin to direct democracy in a very large polity with more than 20 million in California, 1898-1998'' (2000) (ISBN 0-8047-3821-1).'' In [[Switzerland]], five million voters decide on national referendums and [[initiative]]s two to four times a year; direct democratic instruments are also well established at the cantonal and communal level. [[Vermont]] towns have been known for their yearly town meetings, held every March to decide on local issues. ===Socialist Democracy=== [[Socialism|Socialist]] thought has several different views on democracy. [[Social democracy]], [[democratic socialism]], and the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] (usually exercised through [[Soviet democracy]]) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of [[participatory democracy]] and [[workplace democracy]] combined with a [[representative democracy]]. Within [[Democracy in Marxist theory|Marxist orthodoxy]] there is a hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy", which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, [[Marxism|Marxists]], [[Leninism|Leninists]] and [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]] believe in [[direct democracy]] implemented though a system of [[commune (Socialism)|communes]] (which are sometimes called [[Soviet (council)|soviets]]). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See [[Democracy in Marxism]]) ===Anarchist Democracy=== The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy. Some [[Anarchism|anarchists]] oppose direct democracy while others favour it. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''General Idea of the Revolution'' See also commentary by [[Robert Graham|Graham, Robert]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/ANARCHIST_ARCHIVES/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html ''The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution'']</ref> However, [[anarcho-communist]] [[Murray Bookchin]] criticized [[individualist anarchists]] for opposing democracy,<ref>Bookchin, Murray. Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism. Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993-1998, AK Press 1999, p. 155</ref> and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bookchin/soclife.html Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm]</ref> Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of [[consensus democracy]], similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.<ref>Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''</ref> ===Iroquois Democracy=== [[Iroquois]] society had a form of participatory democracy and representative democracy.<ref name"Bagley">''Iroquois Contributions to Modern Democracy and Communism.'' Bagley, Carol L.; Ruckman, Jo Ann. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, v7 n2 p53-72 1983</ref> Iroquois government and law was discussed by Benjamin Franklin<ref name"Bagley">''Iroquois Contributions to Modern Democracy and Communism.'' Bagley, Carol L.; Ruckman, Jo Ann. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, v7 n2 p53-72 1983</ref> and Thomas Jefferson.<ref name="ethno">''Native American Societies and the Evolution of Democracy in America, 1600-1800'' Bruce E. Johansen Ethnohistory, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Summer, 1990), pp. 279-290</ref> Because of this, some scholars regard it to have influenced the formation of American representative democracy.<ref name="ethno">''Native American Societies and the Evolution of Democracy in America, 1600-1800'' Bruce E. Johansen Ethnohistory, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Summer, 1990), pp. 279-290</ref> However scholars who reject [[multiculturalism]] disagree that the influence existed or was of any great importance.<ref>''Political Theory and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples'' By Duncan Ivison, Paul Patton, Will Sanders. Page 237</ref> ===Sortition=== Sometimes called "democracy without elections", [[sortition]] is the process of choosing decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in [[Athenian Democracy]] and is still used in modern [[jury selection]]. It is not universally agreed that sortition should be considered "democracy" due to the lack of actual elections{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. ===Consensus democracy=== [[Consensus democracy]] requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. ===Interactive Democracy=== [[Interactive Democracy]] seeks to utilise information technology to involve voters in law making. It provides a system for proposing new laws, prioritising proposals, clarifying them through parliament and validating them through referendum. ==History== {{main|History of democracy}} [[Image:Democracy claims 2.PNG|right|350px|thumb|Since World War II, democracy has gained widespread acceptance. This map displays the official self identification made by world governments with regard to democracy, as of March 2008. It shows the ''[[de jure]]'' status of democracy in the world. {{legend|#0000FF|Governments self identified as democratic}} {{legend|#FF0000|Governments not self identified as democratic.}}]] [[Image:Freedom House world map 2007.png|thumb|350px|This map reflects the findings of [[Freedom House]]'s survey [[Freedom in the World]] 2007, which reports the state of world freedom in 2006. It is one of the most widely used measures of democracy by researchers.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Note that although these measures (another is the Polity data described below) are highly correlated, this does not imply interchangeability.<ref>Casper, Gretchen, and Claudiu Tufis. 2003. "Correlation Versus Interchangeability: the Limited Robustness of Empirical Finding on Democracy Using Highly Correlated Data Sets." Political Analysis 11: 196-203</ref> {{legend|#219A57|Free.}} Freedom House considers these to be liberal democracies.<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=35&year=2005 freedomhouse.org: Methodology]</ref> {{legend|#FFC27B|Partly Free}} {{legend|#B30000|Not Free}}]] [[Image:Freedom House Country Rankings 1972-2005.png|thumb|350px|This graph shows [[Freedom House]]'s evaluation of the number of nations in the different categories given above for the period for which there are surveys, 1972-2005]] [[Image:Polity data series map 2003.png|thumb|350px|This is one attempted measurement of democracy called the [[polity IV|Polity IV data series]]. This map shows the data presented in the polity IV data series report as of 2003. The lightest countries get a perfect score of 10, while the darkest countries (Saudi Arabia and Qatar), considered the least democratic, score -10.]] [[Image:Number of nations 1800-2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale.png|thumb|right|350px|Number of nations 1800-2003 scoring 8 or higher on [[Polity IV]] scale, another widely used measure of democracy.]] [[Image:Democracyindex2.png|thumb|350px|[[Democracy Index]] as published in January, 2007. The palest blue countries get a score above 9.5 out of 10 (with [[Sweden]] being the most democratic country at 9.88), while the black countries score below 2 (with [[North Korea]] being the least democratic at 1.03).]] ===Ancient origins=== The term ''democracy'' first appeared in [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] political and philosophical thought. The [[philosopher]] [[Plato]] contrasted [[democracy]], the system of "rule by the governed", with the alternative systems of [[monarchy]] (rule by one individual), [[oligarchy]] (rule by a small élite class) and [[timocracy]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics-politics/#4.5 Political Analysis in Plato's Republic] at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> Although [[Athenian democracy]] is today considered by many to have been a form of direct democracy, originally it had two distinguishing features: firstly the allotment (selection by lot) of ordinary citizens to government offices and courts,<ref>Aristotle Book 6</ref> and secondarily the assembly of all the citizens. All the male Athenian citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the Assembly, which set the laws of the city-state, but neither political rights, nor citizenship, were granted to [[women]], [[slaves]], or [[metics]]. Of the 250,000 inhabitants only some 30,000 on average were citizens. Of those 30,000 perhaps 5,000 might regularly attend one or more meetings of the popular Assembly. Most of the officers and magistrates of Athenian government were allotted; only the generals ([[strategoi]]) and a few other officers were elected.<!-- this link is incoherent, please fix<ref>Hansen (1999, 231&ndash;2).</ref>--><ref name="BBC1"/> Even though the [[Roman Republic]] contributed significantly into certain aspects of democracy, such as Laws, it never became a democracy. The Romans had elections for choosing representatives, but again women, slaves, and the large foreign population were excluded. Also the votes of the wealthy were given more weight and almost all high officials, such as being member of [[Roman Senate|Senate]], come from a few wealthy and noble families.<ref>[http://annourbis.com/Ancient-Rome/8rome10.html ANCIENT ROME FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Middle Ages=== During the [[Middle Ages]], there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a minority of the population, such as the election of [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] in [[Bengal]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the [[Althing]] in [[Iceland]], certain [[medieval Italy|medieval Italian]] city-states such as [[Venice]], the [[tuatha]] system in early medieval [[Ireland]], the [[Veche]] in [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] Republics of medieval [[Russia]], [[Scandinavia]]n [[Thing (assembly)|Things]], [[The States]] in [[Tyrol]] and [[Switzerland]] and the autonomous merchant city of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]] in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better classified as [[oligarchy]]. Most regions during the middle-ages were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The [[Parliament of England]] had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into [[Magna Carta]]. The first elected parliament was [[De Montfort's Parliament]] in England in 1265. However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population (less than 3% in 1780.<ref name = "nationalarchives">[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/making_history_rise.htm The National Archives | Exhibitions & Learning online | Citizenship | Struggle for democracy]</ref>), and the system had problematic features such as [[rotten boroughs]]. The power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). After the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, the [[English Bill of Rights]] was enacted in 1689, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of the Parliament.<ref name = "nationalarchives"/> The franchise was slowly increased and the Parliament gradually gained more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead.<ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/struggle_democracy/getting_vote.htm The National Archives | Exhibitions & Learning online | Citizenship | Rise of Parliament]</ref> Democracy was also seen to a certain extent in [[band society|bands]] and [[tribe]]s such as the [[Iroquois Confederacy]]. However, in the Iroquois Confederacy only the males of certain clans could be leaders and some clans were excluded. Only the oldest females from the same clans could choose and remove the leaders. This excluded most of the population. An interesting detail is that there should be consensus among the leaders, not majority support decided by [[voting]], when making decisions.<ref>[http://www.iroquoisdemocracy.pdx.edu/html/activity4.htm Activity Four]</ref><ref>[http://scholar.google.se/url?sa=U&q=http://www.ssc.upenn.edu/~rousseau/IRO.PDF Omdirigeringsmeddelande<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Band societies]], such as the [[Bushmen]], which usually number 20-50 people in the band often do not have leaders and make decisions based on consensus among the majority. In [[Melanesia]], farming village communities have traditionally been egalitarian and lacking in a rigid, authoritarian hierarchy. Although a [[Big man (anthropology)|"Big man"]] or "Big woman" could gain influence, that influence was conditional on a continued demonstration of leadership skills, and on the willingness of the community. Every person was expected to share in communal duties, and entitled to participate in communal decisions. However, strong social pressure encouraged conformity and discouraged individualism.<ref>[http://anglicanhistory.org/oceania/whonsbon-aston1961.html "Melanesia Historical and Geographical: the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides"], ''Southern Cross'' n°1, London: 1950</ref> ===18th and 19th centuries=== Although not described as a democracy by the [[founding fathers]], the [[United States]] founders shared a commitment to the principle of natural freedom and equality.<ref>Jacqueline Newmyer, [http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/2-2/2-2-6.htm "Present from the start: John Adams and America"], ''Oxonian Review of Books'', 2005, vol 4 issue 2</ref> The [[United States Constitution]], adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties. However, in the colonial period before 1776, only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, free black people and women were not extended the franchise. On the [[Frontier Thesis|American frontier]], democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality.<ref>Ray Allen Billington, ''America's Frontier Heritage'' (1974) 117-158. ISBN 0826303102 </ref> However the frontier did not produce much democracy in [[Canada]], [[Australia]] or [[Russia]]. By the 1840s almost all property restrictions were ended and nearly all white adult male citizens could vote; and turnout averaged 60-80% in frequent elections for local, state and national officials. The system gradually evolved, from [[Jeffersonian Democracy]] to [[Jacksonian Democracy]] and beyond. In [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]] after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) the right to vote. In 1789, [[Revolutionary France]] adopted the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] and, although short-lived, the [[National Convention]] was elected by all males.<ref>[http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev892.html The French Revolution II]</ref> Liberal democracies were few and often short-lived before the late nineteenth century. Various nations and territories have claimed to be the first with [[universal suffrage]]. ===20th century=== 20th century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive "waves of democracy," variously resulting from wars, revolutions, [[decolonization]], and economic circumstances. [[World War I]] and the dissolution of the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the [[Great Depression]] brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. [[Fascism]] and dictatorships flourished in [[Nazi Germany]], Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others.<ref>[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:jCe2MTKLhzAJ:www.snl.depaul.edu/contents/current/syllabi/HC_314.doc+Stalin+1930%27s+%22Age+of+Dictators%22&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1&lr=lang_en AGE OF DICTATORS: TOTALITARIANISM IN THE INTER-WAR PERIOD]</ref> [[World War II]] brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The successful democratization of the [[Allied Control Council|American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany]] (disputed<ref>http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=47&articleID=599</ref>), Austria, Italy, and the [[occupied Japan]] served as a model for the later theory of [[regime change]]. However, most of [[Eastern Europe]], including the [[German Democratic Republic|Soviet sector of Germany]] was forced into the non-democratic [[Soviet bloc]]. The war was followed by [[decolonization]], and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India, however emerged as the world's largest democracy and continues to be so.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm BBC NEWS | World | South Asia | Country profiles | Country profile: India<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In the decades following World War II, most western democratic nations had [[mixed economy|mixed economies]] and developed a [[welfare state]], reflecting a general consensus among their electorates and political parties. In the 1950s and 1960s, economic growth was high in both the western and [[communism|Communist]] countries; it later declined in the state-controlled economies. By 1960, the vast majority of nation-states were nominally democracies, although the majority of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies.) A subsequent wave of [[democratization]] brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. [[Spanish democratic transition|Spain]], [[Portuguese transition to democracy|Portugal]] (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in [[South America]] returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s ([[Argentine transition to democracy|Argentina in 1983]], [[History of Bolivia|Bolivia]], [[History of Uruguay|Uruguay in 1984]], [[History of Brazil (1985–present)|Brazil in 1985]], and [[Chilean transition to democracy|Chile in the early 1990s]]). This was followed by nations in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South Asia]] by the mid- to late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of communist oppression, contributed to the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse of the Soviet Union]], the associated end of the [[Cold War]], and the democratization and [[liberalization]] of the former [[Eastern bloc]] countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the [[European Union]] {{Fact|date=September 2007}} <!-- should include more details explaining difficulties of some of former Eastern Bloc countries, and why some transitions were more successful in some of these countries than others -->. The liberal trend spread to some nations in [[Africa]] in the 1990s, most prominently in [[South Africa]]. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998]], the [[5th October Overthrow|Bulldozer Revolution]] in [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], the [[Rose Revolution]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the [[Orange Revolution]] in [[Ukraine]], the [[Cedar Revolution]] in [[Lebanon]], and the [[Tulip Revolution]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]]. Currently, there are 123 countries that are democratic, and the trend is increasing<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=368&year=2007 freedomhouse.org: Tables and Charts]</ref> (up from 40 in 1972){{Fact|date=October 2007}}. As such, it has been speculated that this trend may continue in the future to the point where liberal democratic nation-states become the universal standard form of human [[society]]. This prediction forms the core of [[Francis Fukayama]]'s "[[The End of History and the Last Man|End of History]]" controversial theory. These theories are criticized by those who fear an evolution of liberal democracies to [[Post-democracy]], and other who points out the high number of [[illiberal democracies]]. ==Theory== ===Aristotle=== [[Aristotle]] contrasted rule by the many (democracy/[[polity]]), with rule by the few ([[oligarchy]]/[[aristocracy]]), and with rule by a single person ([[tyranny]]/[[monarchy]] or today [[autocracy]]). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity).<ref>[http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/Ockham/y6704.html Aristotle, The Politics]</ref><ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aristotl.htm Aristotle (384-322 BCE): General Introduction [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]</ref> For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. {{cquote|But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, and if this is the principle of justice prevailing, the multitude must of necessity be sovereign and the decision of the majority must be final and must constitute justice, for they say that each of the citizens ought to have an equal share; so that it results that in democracies the poor are more powerful than the rich, because there are more of them and whatever is decided by the majority is sovereign. This then is one mark of liberty which all democrats set down as a principle of the constitution. And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. This is the second principle of democracy, and from it has come the claim not to be governed, preferably not by anybody, or failing that, to govern and be governed in turns; and this is the way in which the second principle contributes to equalitarian liberty.<ref name="AristotlePol1317b"> [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0058;query=section%3D%23137;layout=;loc=6.1318ahttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0058;query=section%3D%23137;layout=;loc=6.1318a Aristotle, Politics.1317b] </ref>}} ===Conceptions=== Among political theorists, there are many contending conceptions of democracy. *''Aggregative democracy'' uses democratic processes to solicit citizens’ preferences and then aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on [[voting]], where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. There are different variants of this: **Under ''minimalism'', democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not “rule” because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] articulated this view most famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''.<ref>[[Joseph Schumpeter]], (1950). ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-133008-6.</ref> Contemporary proponents of minimalism include [[William H. Riker]], [[Adam Przeworski]], [[Richard Posner]]. **[[Direct democracy]], on the other hand, holds that citizens should participate directly, not through their representatives, in making laws and policies. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. **Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter &mdash; with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments.[[Anthony Downs]] laid out this view in his 1957 book ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''.<ref>[[Anthony Downs]], (1957). ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''. Harpercollins College. ISBN 0-06-041750-1.</ref> **[[Robert A. Dahl]] argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term [[polyarchy]] to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open [[elections]] which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation.<ref>[[Robert A. Dahl|Dahl, Robert]], (1989). ''Democracy and its Critics.'' New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300049382</ref> Some see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like [[campaign finance reform]]. Some may see it as a problem that the majority of the voters decide policy, as opposed to majority rule of the entire population. This can be used as an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory [[voting]] <!-- hiding, need info about publisher of this article, please fix<ref>[http://www.apsanet.org/imgtest/verba.pdf]</ref>--> or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. *''[[Deliberative democracy]]'' is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion. Deliberative democrats contend that laws and policies should be based upon reasons that all citizens can accept. The political arena should be one in which leaders and citizens make arguments, listen, and change their minds. *''[[Radical democracy]]'' is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. ===Democracy and republic=== {{main|Republicanism#Democracy and republic}} ===Constitutional monarchs and upper chambers=== Initially after the American and French revolutions the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elitist [[upper chamber]], the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a [[constitutional monarch]] with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries and Japan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in the U.S., France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these senates lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). ==Supranational democracy== [[Qualified majority voting]] (QMV) is designed by the [[Treaty of Rome]] to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the [[European Council of Ministers]]. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the "individuals" being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many other [[international organization]]s. [[European Parliament]] members are democratically directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a [[supranational]] democratic institution. ==Non-government democracy== Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations. *Many [[non-governmental organisations]] decide policy and leadership by voting. *Most [[trade union]]s choose their leadership through democratic elections. *[[Cooperatives]] are enterprises owned and democratically controlled by their customers or workers. ==See also== *[[List of types of democracy]] *[[Community of Democracies]] *[[Democracy Index]] *[[Democratic Peace Theory]] *[[Democratization]] *[[Direct democracy]] *[[E-democracy]] *[[Election]] *[[Foucault/Habermas debate]] *[[Freedom deficit]] *[[Freedom House]], Freedom in the World report *[[Liberal democracy]] *[[Majority rule]] *[[Media democracy]] *[[Netocracy]] *[[Poll]] *[[polyarchy]] *[[Sociocracy]] *[[sortition]] *[[Voting]] ==Notes== The [[United Nations]] has declared [[15 September]] as the International Day of Democracy.<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/ga10655.doc.htm GENERAL ASSEMBLY DECLARES 15 SEPTEMBER INTERNATIONAL DAY OF DEMOCRACY; ALSO ELECTS 18 MEMBERS TO ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== *Appleby, Joyce, ''Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination'' (1992) *Becker, Peter, Juergen Heideking and James A. Henretta, eds. ''Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750-1850.'' Cambridge University Press. 2002. *Benhabib, Seyla, ed., ''Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political'' (Princeton University Press, 1996) *[[Charles Blattberg]], ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First'', Oxford University Press, 2000, ch. 5. ISBN 0-19-829688-6 *Birch, Anthony H., ''The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy'', (London: Routledge, 1993) *Castiglione, Dario. "Republicanism and its Legacy," ''European Journal of Political Theory'' (2005) v 4 #4 pp 453-65.[http://www.huss.ex.ac.uk/politics/research/readingroom/CastiglioneRepublicanism.pdf#search=%22republicanism%20historiography%22 online version] *Copp, David, Jean Hampton, and John E. Roemer, eds. ''The Idea of Democracy'' Cambridge University Press (1993) *Caputo, Nicholas ''America's Bible of Democracy'', SterlingHouse Publisher, Inc. (ISBN 1-58501-092-8) *Dahl, Robert A. ''Democracy and its Critics'', Yale University Press (1989) *Dahl, Robert A. ''On Democracy'' Yale University Press (2000) *Dahl, Robert A. Ian Shapiro, and Jose Antonio Cheibub, eds, ''The Democracy Sourcebook'' MIT Press (2003) *Dahl, Robert A. ''A Preface to Democratic Theory'', University of Chicago Press (1956) *Davenport, Christian. ''State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace'' Cambridge University Press (2007) ISBN 9780521864909 *Diamond, Larry and Marc Plattner, ''The Global Resurgence of Democracy'', 2nd edition Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996 *Diamond, Larry and Richard Gunther, eds. ''Political Parties and Democracy'' (2001) *Diamond, Larry and Leonardo Morlino, eds. ''Assessing the Quality of Democracy'' (2005) *Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner, and Philip J. Costopoulos, eds. ''World Religions and Democracy'' (2005) *Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner, and Daniel Brumberg, eds. ''Islam and Democracy in the Middle East'' (2003) *Elster, Jon (ed.). ''Deliberative Democracy'' Cambridge University Press (1997) *[[Takis Fotopoulos|Fotopoulos, Takis]], "[http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/journal/vol2/vol2_no2_Takis_liberal_socialist.htm Liberal and Socialist “Democracies” versus Inclusive Democracy]", ''The International Journal Of Inclusive Democracy'', Vol.2 No.2 (January 2006) *[[Takis Fotopoulos|Fotopoulos, Takis]], [http://www.democracynature.org/dn/vol1/fotopoulos_athens.htm "Direct and Economic Democracy in Ancient Athens and its Significance Today"], ''Democracy & Nature'', Vol.1 No.1 (Issue 1), 1992 *Gabardi, Wayne. "Contemporary Models of Democracy," ''Polity'' 33#4 (2001) pp 547+. *Griswold, Daniel, [http://www.freetrade.org/node/681 Trade, Democracy and Peace: The Virtuous Cycle] *[[Mogens Herman Hansen|Hansen, Mogens Herma]]n, ''The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes'', (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991) *Held, David. ''Models of Democracy'' Stanford University Press, (1996), reviews the major interpretations *Inglehart, Ronald. ''Modernization and Postmodernization. Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies'' Princeton University Press. 1997. *Khan, L. Ali, ''A Theory of Universal Democracy.'' Martinus Nijhoff Publishers(2003) *[[Hans Köchler]] ed., ''The Crisis of Representative Democracy'', (Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1987) (ISBN 3-8204-8843-X) *Lijphart, Arend. ''Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries'' Yale University Press (1999) *Lipset, Seymour Martin. “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy”, American Political Science Review, (1959) 53 (1): 69-105. online at JSTOR *Macpherson, C. B. ''The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy.'' Oxford University Press (1977) *Morgan, Edmund. ''Inventing the People: The Rise of Popular Sovereignty in England and America'' (1989) *Plattner, Marc F. and Aleksander Smolar, eds. ''Globalization, Power, and Democracy'' (2000) *Plattner, Marc F. and João Carlos Espada, eds. ''The Democratic Invention'' (2000) *Putnam, Robert. ''Making Democracy Work'' Princeton University Press. (1993) *Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W. ''Origins of democracy in ancient Greece''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 0520245628). *[[William H. Riker|Riker, William H.]], ''[[The Theory of Political Coalitions]] (1962) *Sen, Amartya K. “Democracy as a Universal Value”, ''Journal of Democracy'' (1999) 10 (3): 3-17. *Tannsjo, Torbjorn. Global Democracy: The Case for a World Government (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), argues that not only is world government necessary if we want to deal successfully with global problems it is also, pace Kant and Rawls, desirable in its own right. *Weingast, Barry. “The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy”, ''American Political Science Review,'' (1997) 91 (2): 245-263. online at JSTOR *Whitehead, Laurence ed. ''Emerging Market Democracies: East Asia and Latin America'' (2002) *Wood, E.M., ''Democracy Against Capitalism'', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) *Wood, Gordon S. '' The Radicalism of the American Revolution'' (1993), examines democratic dimensions of republicanism ==External links== *{{dmoz|Society/Politics/Democracy/}} *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democracy Democracy] at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] *[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-78 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy] *[http://static.scribd.com/docs/4b7j9i83zecbp.pdf The Economist Intelligence Unit’s index of democracy] *[http://www.democracywatch.org Democracy Watch (International)] &mdash; Worldwide democracy monitoring organization. ;Critique *[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], ''Democracy, The God That Failed'', (Rutgers, NJ: 2001). [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe4.html Discussion] by the author *[[Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn]], [http://www.conservativeclassics.com/books/libertybk/BK08.PDF ''Liberty or Equality''] *J.K. Baltzersen, [http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105churchilldem.htm ''Churchill on Democracy Revisited''], ([[24 January]] [[2005]]) *Willard, Charles Arthur. Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy, University of Chicago Press, 1996 {{wikiquote}} {{wiktionarypar|democracy}} {{Forms of leadership}} {{enlightenment}} [[Category:Democracy|*]] [[Category:Elections]] [[Category:Greek loanwords]] [[Category:Concepts (nationalism studies)]] {{Link FA|ar}} {{Link FA|he}} [[af:Demokrasie]] [[ar:ديمقراطية]] [[an:Democrazia]] [[ast:Democracia]] [[az:Demokratiya]] [[bn:গণতন্ত্র]] [[zh-min-nan:Bîn-chú]] [[bs:Demokratija]] [[br:Demokratelezh]] [[bg:Демокрация]] [[ca:Democràcia]] [[ceb:Demokrasya]] [[cs:Demokracie]] [[cy:Democratiaeth]] [[da:Demokrati]] [[de:Demokratie]] [[et:Demokraatia]] [[el:Δημοκρατία]] [[es:Democracia]] [[eo:Demokratio]] [[eu:Demokrazia]] [[fa:مردم‌سالاری]] [[fr:Démocratie]] [[fy:Demokrasy]] [[ga:Daonlathas]] [[gd:Deamocrasaidh]] [[gl:Democracia]] [[ki:Ndemookirathĩ]] [[ko:민주주의]] [[hi:लोकतंत्र]] [[hr:Demokracija]] [[io:Demokratio]] [[id:Demokrasi]] [[ia:Democratia]] [[is:Lýðræði]] [[it:Democrazia]] [[he:דמוקרטיה]] [[ka:დემოკრატია]] [[kg:Dimokalasi]] [[ht:Demokrasi]] [[ku:Demokrasî]] [[lo:ລະບອບປະຊາທິປະໄຕ]] [[la:Democratia]] [[lv:Demokrātija]] [[lt:Demokratija]] [[ln:Demokrasi]] [[hu:Demokrácia]] [[mk:Демократија]] [[ml:ജനാധിപത്യം]] [[mr:लोकशाही]] [[ms:Demokrasi]] [[mn:Ардчилал]] [[nl:Democratie]] [[new:मक्कळाट्चि (तमिल संकिपा)]] [[ja:民主主義]] [[no:Demokrati]] [[nn:Folkestyre]] [[nds:Demokratie]] [[pl:Demokracja]] [[pt:Democracia]] [[ro:Democraţie]] [[qu:Akllanakuspa kamachinakuy]] [[ru:Демократия]] [[sq:Demokracia]] [[scn:Dimucrazzìa]] [[simple:Democracy]] [[sk:Demokracia]] [[sl:Demokracija]] [[so:Dimoqraadi]] [[sr:Демократија]] [[sh:Demokracija]] [[fi:Demokratia]] [[sv:Demokrati]] [[tl:Demokrasya]] [[ta:மக்களாட்சி]] [[te:ప్రజాస్వామ్యం]] [[th:ประชาธิปไตย]] [[vi:Dân chủ]] [[tg:Демократия]] [[tr:Demokrasi]] [[uk:Демократія]] [[ur:جمہوریت]] [[vec:Democrazsia]] [[yi:דעמאקראטיע]] [[zh-yue:民主]] [[cbk-zam:Democracia]] [[zh:民主]]