Depleted uranium 37514 226081140 2008-07-16T19:12:46Z El C 92203 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.113.103.122|137.113.103.122]] ([[User talk:137.113.103.122|talk]]) to last version by Athaler [[Image:30mm DU slug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The DU penetrator of a [[30 mm caliber]] round]] '''Depleted uranium (DU)''' is [[uranium]] primarily composed of the [[isotope]] [[uranium-238]] (U-238). Natural uranium is about 99.27 percent U-238, 0.72 percent [[uranium-235|U-235]], and 0.0055 percent [[uranium-234|U-234]]. Because U-235 is used for [[fission]] in [[nuclear reactor]]s and [[nuclear weapon]]s, natural uranium is [[Enriched uranium|enriched in U-235]] by separating the isotopes by mass. The byproduct of enrichment, called depleted uranium or DU, contains less than one third as much U-235 and U-234 as natural uranium, making it less [[radioactivity|radioactive]] due to the longer 4.5 billion year [[half-life]] of U-238. The external radiation dose from DU is about 60 percent of that from the same [[mass]] of natural uranium.<ref>[http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/du_ii/du_ii_tabc.htm "Properties and Characteristics of DU"] U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense</ref> Another less common source of DU is [[Nuclear reprocessing|reprocessed]] spent nuclear reactor fuel, which can be distinguished from DU produced as a byproduct of uranium enrichment by the presence of [[Isotopes of uranium|U-236]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/unep81.doc.htm |title= UN Press Release UNEP/81: Uranium 236 found in depleted uranium penetrators |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= UN |pages= }}</ref> produced in reactors. In the past, DU has been called '''Q-metal''', '''depletalloy''', and '''D-38''', but those names are no longer used. DU is used for its very high [[density]] of 19.1&nbsp;[[Gram|g]]/[[Cubic centimetre|cm<sup>3</sup>]]. Civilian uses include counterweights in aircraft, radiation shielding in medical [[radiation therapy]] and industrial [[radiography]] equipment, and containers used to transport radioactive materials. Military uses include defensive armor plate and [[Armor-piercing shot and shell|armor-piercing]] [[projectiles]]. Depleted uranium [[munitions]] are controversial because of unanswered questions about potential long-term health effects. DU is less [[toxicity|toxic]] than other [[heavy metals]] such as [[arsenic]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and is only very weakly radioactive because of its long half life.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp150.html |title= Toxicological profile for uranium |accessdate= |author= Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |date= |year= 1999 |publisher= Washington, DC, US Public Health Service |pages= }}</ref> While any radiation exposure has risks, no conclusive [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] data have correlated DU exposure to specific human health effects such as [[cancer]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://fhp.osd.mil/du/healthEffects.jsp |title= Toxicological profile for uranium |accessdate= |author= Health Effects of Uranium |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> However, the UK government has attributed [[birth defect]] claims from a 1991 Gulf War combat veteran to DU poisoning,<ref name=scot1>{{cite news | author = | title = Gulf soldier wins pension fight | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/3456433.stm | date = 2004-02-02 | accessdate = | publisher= BBC News }}</ref><ref name=scot2> {{cite news | author = | title = When the dust settles | url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/feature/story/0,13026,937902,00.html | date = 2003-04-17 | accessdate = | publisher= Guardian Unlimited }}</ref> and studies using cultured cells and laboratory rodents continue to suggest the possibility of [[leukemia|leukemogenic]], [[genetic]], [[reproduction|reproductive]], and [[neurological]] effects from chronic exposure.<ref> {{cite journal | author = Miller AC, McClain D. | title = A review of depleted uranium biological effects: in vitro and in vivo studies | journal = Rev Environ Health | year = 2007 Jan-Mar | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 75–89 | pmid = 17508699}}</ref> ==History== Enriched uranium was first manufactured in the 1940s when the U.S. and [[Soviet Union|USSR]] began their [[nuclear weapon]]s and [[nuclear power]] programs. It was at this time that depleted uranium was first stored as an unusable waste product. There was some hope that the enrichment process would be improved and fissionable isotopes of U-235 could, at some future date, be extracted from the depleted uranium. This re-enrichment recovery of the residual uranium-235 contained in the depleted uranium is no longer a matter of the future: it has been practised for several years.<ref> {{cite web |url= http://www.inesap.org/bulletin17/bul17art05.htm |title= Depleted Uranium: A By-product of the Nuclear Chain |accessdate= |author= Peter Diehl |date= |year= 1999 |publisher= International Network of Engineers and Scientists Against Proliferation |pages= }}</ref> Also, it is possible to design [[Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor|civilian power reactors with unenriched fuel]], but only about 10 percent of reactors ever built utilize that technology, and both nuclear weapons production and [[Nuclear marine propulsion|naval reactors]] require the concentrated isotope. In the 1970s, [[The Pentagon]] reported that the [[Red Army|Soviet military]] had developed armor plating for [[Warsaw Pact]] tanks that [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] ammunition couldn't penetrate. The Pentagon began searching for material to make denser bullets. After testing various metals, [[ordnance]] researchers settled on depleted uranium. As a byproduct of uranium enrichment, DU became less expensive than other high-density ordnance candidates including [[tungsten]] in the 1960s. As the next best candidate, tungsten had to be obtained from [[China]]. With DU stockpiles estimated to be more than 500,000 tons, it was more economical to use depleted uranium than store it. Thus, from the late 1970s, the U.S., the Soviet Union, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and [[France]] began converting their stockpiles of depleted uranium into [[kinetic energy penetrator]]s. The U.S. military used DU shells in the [[1991 Gulf War]], [[Bosnia war]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://web.archive.org/web/20030726195002/http://www.cancerpage.com/cancernews/cancernews2268.htm |title= NATO: 50 Countries See No Depleted Uranium Illness |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> [[Operation Allied Force|Serbia bombing]], and the [[2003 Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0812-06.htm |title= Is an Armament Sickening U.S. Soldiers? |accessdate= 2006-11-01 |author= |date= August 12 |year= 2006 |publisher= Associated Press |pages= }}</ref> While clearing a decades-old Hawaii firing range, workers found depleted uranium training rounds from the formerly classified Davey Crockett tactical battlefield nuclear delivery system from the 1960-70s. These training rounds had been forgotten because they had been fired before DU came to the news media's attention, more than 20 years before the Gulf War. ===Production and availability=== [[Natural uranium]] metal contains about 0.71 percent [[Uranium-235|U-235]], 99.28 percent [[Uranium-238|U-238]], and about 0.0054 percent [[Uranium-234|U-234]]. In order to produce [[enriched uranium]], the process of [[isotope separation]] removes a substantial portion of the U-235 for use in nuclear power, weapons, or other uses. The remainder, ''depleted uranium'', contains only 0.2 percent to 0.4 percent U-235. Because natural uranium begins with such a low percentage of U-235, enrichment produces large quantities of depleted uranium. For example, producing 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of five percent enriched uranium requires 11.8 kg of natural uranium, and leaves about 10.8 kg of depleted uranium with only 0.3 percent U-235 remaining. The [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]] (NRC) defines ''depleted uranium'' as uranium with a percentage of the <sup>235</sup>U isotope that is less than 0.711 percent by weight (See [http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part040/part040-0004.html 10 CFR 40.4].) The military specifications designate that the DU used by the [[U.S. Department of Defense]] (DoD) contain less than 0.3 percent <sup>235</sup>U (AEPI, 1995). In actuality, DoD uses only DU that contains approximately 0.2 percent <sup>235</sup>U (AEPI, 1995). ===Uranium hexafluoride=== [[Image:DUF6 cylinder leak.gif|250px|thumb|right|Hexafluoride tank leaking.]] About 95 percent of the depleted uranium produced is stored as [[uranium hexafluoride]], a liquid, (D)UF<sub>6</sub>, in steel cylinders in open air storage yards close to enrichment plants. Each cylinder holds up to 12.7 tonnes (or 14 US tons) of UF<sub>6</sub>. In the U.S. 560,000 tonnes of depleted UF<sub>6</sub> had accumulated by 1993. In 2008, 686,500 tonnes in 57,122 storage cylinders were located near [[Portsmouth, Ohio]] and [[Paducah, Kentucky]].<ref>[http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/storage/faq16.cfm How much depleted uranium hexafluoride is stored in the United States]</ref><ref> [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/documents/index.cfm Depleted UF<sub>6</sub> Management Program Documents]</ref> The storage of DUF<sub>6</sub> presents environmental, health, and safety risks because of its chemical instability. When UF<sub>6</sub> is exposed to water vapor in the air, it reacts with the moisture to produce UO<sub>2</sub>F<sub>2</sub> ([[uranyl fluoride]]), a solid, and HF ([[hydrofluoric acid|hydrogen fluoride]]), a gas, both of which are highly soluble and toxic. The uranyl fluoride solid acts to plug the leak, limiting further escape of depleted UF<sub>6</sub>. Release of the hydrogen fluoride gas to the atmosphere is also slowed by the plug formation.<ref>[http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/storage/faq21.cfm What happens if a cylinder of uranium hexafluoride leaks?]</ref> Storage cylinders must be regularly inspected for signs of corrosion and leaks and are repainted and repaired as necessary. The estimated life time of the steel cylinders is measured in decades.<ref>[http://www.ieer.org/sdafiles/vol_5/5-2/deararj.html IEER: Science for Democratic Action Vol. 5 No. 2<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The DOE is constructing two facilities to convert the UF<sub>6</sub> to a more stable chemical form for long term storage. These facilities are expected to be in operation by early 2009 and take around 20 years to process the entire US government stock of UF<sub>6</sub>. A ten-fold jump in uranium prices has transformed approximately one-third of the U.S. depleted uranium inventory into an asset worth $7.6 billion, assuming DOE re-enriches the tails. This estimate is based on February 2008 market price for uranium and enrichment services, and DOE's access to sufficient uranium enrichment capacity.<ref>[http://www.cibolabeacon.com/articles/2008/04/03/news/news7.txt Cibola County Beacon - News<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> There have been several accidents involving uranium hexafluoride in the United States, including one in which 31 workers were exposed to a cloud of UF<sub>6</sub> and its reaction products. Though some of the more highly exposed workers showed evidence of short-term [[kidney]] damage (e.g., [[protein]] in the [[urine]]), none of these workers had lasting kidney toxicity from the uranium exposure.<ref>[http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/health/faq30.cfm FAQ 30-Have there been accidents involving uranium hexafluoride?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The U.S. government has been converting DUF<sub>6</sub> to solid uranium oxides for use or disposal.<ref>[http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/storage/faq22.cfm FAQ 22-What is going to happen to the uranium hexafluoride stored in the United States?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Such disposal of the entire DUF<sub>6</sub> inventory could cost anywhere from $15 million to $450 million.<ref>[http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/faq/mgmt/faq27.cfm FAQ 27-Are there any currently-operating disposal facilities that can accept all of the depleted uranium oxide that would be generated from conversion of DOE's depleted UF6 inventory?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> {{CleanBr}} ::::::::'''World Depleted Uranium Inventory''' :::::{| class="wikitable" |- ! Country ! Organization ! Approx. DU Stocks <small>(tonnes)</small> ! Reported |- ||{{flag|United States}} ||[[United States Department of Energy|DOE]] ||480,000 ||2002 |- ||{{flag|Russia}} ||[[FAEA]] ||460,000 ||1996 |- ||{{flag|France}} ||[[Areva NC]] ||190,000 ||2001 |- ||{{flag|United Kingdom}} ||[[BNFL]] ||30,000 ||2001 |- ||{{flag|Germany}}<br>{{flag|Netherlands}}<br>{{flag|United Kingdom}} ||[[URENCO]] ||16,000 ||1999 |- ||{{flag|Japan}} ||[[JNFL]] ||10,000 ||2001 |- ||{{flag|China}} ||[[CNNC]] ||2,000 ||2000 |- ||{{flag|South Korea}} ||[[KAERI]] ||200 ||2002 |- ||{{flag|South Africa}} ||[[NECSA]] ||73 ||2001 |- ||'''TOTAL''' || ||'''1,188,273''' ||'''2002''' |- |} :::::<small> [http://www.wise-uranium.org/eddat.html ''Source:'' WISE Uranium Project]</small> ==Military applications== [[Image:M900.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The 105mm M900 APFSDS-T (Depleted Uranium Armor Piercing Fin Stabilized Discarding Sabot - Tracer)]] Depleted uranium is very dense; at 19050 kg/[[m³]], it has 1.67 times the density of [[lead]]. Thus a given mass of it has a smaller diameter than an equivalent lead projectile, with less [[external ballistics|aerodynamic drag]] and deeper [[terminal ballistics|penetration]] due to a higher pressure at point of impact. DU projectile ordnance is often [[incendiary]] because of its [[pyrophoric]] property.<ref name=doehbk>US Dept. of Energy Handbook, [http://hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/techstds/standard/hdbk1081/hbk1081.html "Primer on Spontaneous Heating and Pyrophoricity"], Chapter [http://hss.energy.gov/NuclearSafety/techstds/standard/hdbk1081/hbk1081e.html#ZZ30 "Uranium"]</ref> ===Armor plate===<!-- This section is linked from [[Depleted Uranium Armour]] --> Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armor, sandwiched between sheets of steel armor plate. For instance, some late-production [[M1 Abrams|M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams]] tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of its armor plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret and there is a program to upgrade the rest, for example [[Chobham armour#Heavy metal modules|Chobham armor]]. DU is 1.67 times as dense as lead, is only slightly less dense than tungsten and [[gold]], and is 84% as dense as [[osmium]] or [[iridium]], which are the densest known substances under standard (i.e., Earth-surface) pressures. ===Nuclear weapons=== Depleted uranium is used as a [[Nuclear_weapon_design#Tamper|tamper]] in [[fission bomb]]s and as a nuclear fuel in [[hydrogen bomb]]s. ===Ammunition=== Most military use of depleted uranium has been as [[30 mm caliber]] ordnance, primarily the 30 mm PGU-14/B armour-piercing incendiary round from the [[GAU-8 Avenger]] cannon of the [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]] used by the [[USAF|U.S. Air Force]] and M230 of the [[AH-64 Apache|AH-64 Apache Helicopter]] used by the [[United States Army]]. Another common use of DU is 120mm Sabot Rounds fired from the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams.<ref>Fahey, D. (2003) [http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/pdf/dumyths.pdf "Science or Science Fiction? Facts, Myths and Propaganda In the Debate Over Depleted Uranium Weapons"], Table 1 on p. 13</ref> 25 mm DU rounds have been used in the [[M242]] gun mounted on the U.S. Army's [[M2 Bradley|Bradley Fighting Vehicle]] and [[LAV-AT]]. The [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] uses DU in the 25 mm PGU-20 round fired by the [[GAU-12 Equalizer]] cannon of the [[AV-8 Harrier II|AV-8B Harrier]], and also in the 20 mm [[M197]] gun mounted on [[AH-1 Cobra|AH-1 helicopter gunships]]. The US Navy's [[Phalanx CIWS]]'s [[M61 Vulcan]] [[gatling gun]] used 20 mm armor-piercing penetrator rounds with discarding plastic sabots which were made using depleted uranium, later changed to tungsten. Another use of depleted uranium is in [[kinetic energy penetrator]]s [[anti-armor]] role. Kinetic energy penetrator rounds consist of a long, relatively thin penetrator surrounded by discarding [[sabot]]. Two materials lend themselves to penetrator construction: tungsten and depleted uranium, the latter in designated alloys known as [[staballoy]]s. "[[Staballoy]]s" are metal alloys of depleted uranium with a very small proportion of other metals, usually [[titanium]] or [[molybdenum]]. One formulation has a composition of 99.25 percent by mass of depleted uranium and 0.75 percent by mass of [[titanium]]. Another variant can have 3.5 percent by mass of titanium. Staballoys are about twice as dense as lead and are designed for use in kinetic energy penetrator [[armor-piercing]] ammunition. The [[United States Army|US Army]] uses DU in an alloy with around 3.5 percent titanium. [[Image:Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm ammunition.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1987 photo of Mark 149 Mod 2 20mm depleted uranium ammunition for the [[Phalanx CIWS]] aboard {{USS|Missouri|BB-63}}.]] Staballoys, along with lower raw material costs, have the advantage of being easy to melt and cast into shape; a difficult and expensive process for tungsten. Note also that according to recent research,<ref>Kalinich, J.F. ''et al.'' (2005) [http://web.archive.org/web/20070628114617/http://www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/tungsten_cancer.pdf "Embedded Weapons-Grade Tungsten Alloy Rapidly Induces Metastatic High-Grade Rhabdomyosarcomas in F334 Rats"] National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, doi:10.1289/ehp.7791</ref> at least some of the most promising tungsten alloys which have been considered as replacement for depleted uranium in penetrator ammunitions, such as tungsten-[[cobalt]] or tungsten-[[nickel]]-cobalt alloys, possess extreme [[carcinogen]]ic properties, which by far exceed those (confirmed or suspected) of depleted uranium itself: 100 percent of [[rat]]s implanted with a pellet of such alloys developed lethal [[rhabdomyosarcoma]] within a few weeks. On more properly military grounds, depleted uranium is favored for the penetrator because it is self-sharpening and [[pyrophoric]].<ref name=doehbk /> On impact with a hard target, such as an armoured vehicle, the nose of the rod fractures in such a way that it remains sharp. The impact and subsequent release of heat energy causes it to disintegrate to dust and burn when it reaches air because of its [[pyrophoric]] properties.<ref name=doehbk /> When a DU penetrator reaches the interior of an armored vehicle, it catches fire, often igniting ammunition and fuel, killing the crew, and possibly causing the vehicle to explode. DU is used by the U.S. Army in 120 mm or 105 mm cannons employed on the [[M1 Abrams]] and [[M60A3]] [[tank]]s. The Russian military has used DU ammunition in [[tank]] main gun ammunition since the late 1970s, mostly for the 115 mm guns in the [[T-62]] tank and the 125 mm guns in the [[T-64]], [[T-72]], [[T-80]], and [[T-90]] tanks. The DU content in various ammunition is 180 g in 20 mm projectiles, 200 g in 25 mm ones, 280g in 30 mm, 3.5 kg in 105 mm, and 4.5 kg in 120 mm penetrators. DU was used during the mid-1990s in the U.S. to make 9 mm and similar caliber armor piercing bullets,{{Fact|date=April 2008}} grenades, [[cluster bomb]]s, and [[land mine|mines]], but those applications have been discontinued, according to [[Alliant Techsystems]]. Whether or not other nations still make such use of DU is difficult to determine. It is thought that between 17 and 20 states have weapons incorporating depleted uranium in their arsenals. They include the U.S., the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]], [[Russia]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Turkey]], [[Israel]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Egypt]], [[Kuwait]], [[Pakistan]], [[Thailand]], [[Iraq]] and [[Taiwan]]. DU ammunition is manufactured in 18 countries. Only the US and the UK have acknowledged using DU weapons.<ref>''The International Legality of the Use of Depleted Uranium Weapons: A Precautionary Approach'', Avril McDonald, Jann K. Kleffner and Brigit Toebes, eds. (TMC Asser Press Fall-2003)</ref> ===Legal status in weapons=== In 1996 the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion on the "''[[legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons]]''".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.cornnet.nl/~akmalten/unan5a.html | title = legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons | accessdate= | author= | date= | year= | publisher= | pages= }}</ref> This made it clear, in paragraphs 54, 55 and 56, that [[international law]] on poisonous weapons, &ndash; the Second Hague Declaration of [[29 July]] 1899, Hague Convention IV of [[18 October]] 1907 and the Geneva Protocol of [[17 June]] 1925 &ndash; did not cover nuclear weapons, because their prime or exclusive use was not to poison or asphyxiate. This ICJ opinion was about nuclear weapons, but the sentence "The terms have been understood, in the practice of States, in their ordinary sense as covering weapons whose prime, or even exclusive, effect is to poison or asphyxiate," also removes depleted uranium weaponry from coverage by the same treaties as their primary use is not to poison or asphyxiate, but to destroy [[materiel]] and kill soldiers through [[kinetic energy]]. The [[Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities]] of the [[United Nations Human Rights Commission]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.houstonprogressive.org/hpn/iraq08.html |title= Citizen Inspectors Foiled in Search for DU Weapons |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> passed two motions<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.prop1.org/2000/du/resource/000310un.htm |title= Depleted Uranium UN Resolutions |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> the first in 1996<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0811fcbd0b9f6bd58025667300306dea/887c730868a70a758025665700548a00 |title= Sub-Commission resolution 1996/16 |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> and the second in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/21a4acb0f1b289ed80256633004ce147? |title= Opendocument Sub-Commission resolution 1997/36 |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> They listed [[weapons of mass destruction]], or weapons with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering and urged all states to curb the production and the spread of such weapons. Included in the list was weaponry containing depleted uranium. The committee authorized a working paper, in the context of [[human rights]] and humanitarian norms, of the weapons. The requested UN working paper was delivered in 2002<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.2002.38.En?Opendocument E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/38 |title= Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}([http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/AllSymbols/22481F4157DE6274C1256C00004C29BB/$File/G0214167.pdf?OpenElement backup]) "''In its decision 2001/36 of 16 August 2001, the Sub‑Commission, recalling its resolutions 1997/36 and 1997/37 of 28 August 1997, authorized Mr. Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen to prepare, without financial implications, in the context of human rights and humanitarian norms, the working paper originally assigned to Ms. Forero Ucros.''"</ref> by Y.K.J. Yeung Sik Yuen in accordance with [[Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights]] resolution 2001/36. He argues that the use of DU in weapons, along with the other weapons listed by the Sub‑Commission, may breach one or more of the following treaties: [[The Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]; the [[Charter of the United Nations]]; the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|Genocide Convention]]; the [[United Nations Convention Against Torture]]; the [[Geneva Conventions]] including [[Protocol I]]; the [[Convention on Conventional Weapons]] of 1980; and the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]]. Yeung Sik Yuen writes in Paragraph 133 under the title "''Legal compliance of weapons containing DU as a new weapon''": {{quotation|Annex II to the [[Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material]] 1980 (which became operative on [[8 February]] 1997) classifies DU as a category II nuclear material. Storage and transport rules are set down for that category which indicates that DU is considered sufficiently "hot" and dangerous to warrant these protections. But since weapons containing DU are relatively new weapons no treaty exists yet to regulate, limit or prohibit its use. The legality or illegality of DU weapons must therefore be tested by recourse to the general rules governing the use of weapons under humanitarian and human rights law which have already been analysed in Part I of this paper, and more particularly at paragraph 35 which states that parties to [[Protocol I]] to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 have an obligation to ascertain that new weapons do not violate the laws and customs of war or any other international law. As mentioned, the [[International Court of Justice]] considers this rule binding customary humanitarian law.}} In 2001, [[Carla Del Ponte]], the chief prosecutor for the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], said that [[NATO|NATO's]] use of depleted uranium in [[former Yugoslavia]] could be investigated as a possible [[war crime]].<ref>The [[Associated Press]] & [[Reuters]] contributed to this report: [http://www.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/01/14/balkans.uranium/ Use of DU weapons could be war crime] [[CNN]] [[January 14]], 2001</ref> [[Louise Arbour]], Del Ponte's predecessor as chief prosecutor, had created a small, internal committee, made up of staff lawyers, to assess the allegation. Their findings, that were accepted and endorsed by Del Ponte,<ref>Joe Sills ''et al'' ''[http://www.aepi.army.mil/internet/env-crime-icc-printer.pdf Environmental Crimes in Military Actions and the International Criminal Court (ICC)-United Nations Perspectives]'' (PDF) ([http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:JT7rhRB-PgYJ:www.aepi.army.mil/internet/env-crime-icc-printer.pdf HTML]) of American Council for the UN University, April 2002. Page 28</ref> concluded that: {{quotation|There is no specific treaty ban on the use of DU projectiles. There is a developing scientific debate and concern expressed regarding the impact of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there will be a consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principles of the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict. No such consensus exists at present.<ref>[http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/nato061300.htm#IVA2 The Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Use of Depleted Uranium Projectiles]</ref>}} ===Requests for a moratorium on military use=== Some states and the [[International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons]], a coalition of more than 90 [[non-governmental organization]]s, have asked for a ban on the production and military use of depleted uranium weapons.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/i/10.html| title=ICBUW's membership includes 85 groups in 22 countries worldwide| date=[[27 September]] [[2006]]|publisher=The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons| accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref> The [[European Parliament]] has repeatedly passed resolutions requesting an immediate [[moratorium]] on the further use of depleted uranium ammunition,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eoslifework.co.uk/pdfs/EUweaponsres12f03.pdf|date=[[10 February]] [[2003]]|title=Session Document: European Parliament resolution on the harmful effects of unexploded ordnance (landmines and cluster submunitions) and depleted uranium ammunition|accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/en/a/89.html|publisher=The International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons| accessdate=2007-03-22| title=European Parliament Makes Fourth Call for DU Ban| date=[[22 November]] [[2006]]}}</ref> but France and Britain – the only EU states that are also permanent members of the United Nations Security Council – have consistently rejected calls for a ban,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/durej.htm|title=DU: Some NATO Countries Reject Moratorium|date=[[11 January]] [[2001]]|publisher=UN Wire|accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref> maintaining that its use continues to be legal, and that the health risks are entirely unsubstantiated.<ref name="ukepetition2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page11309.asp|date=[[22 March]] [[2007]]|title=Depleteduranium - epetition reply|publisher=The Prime Minister's Office|accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref> ==Civilian applications== Civilian applications for depleted uranium are typically unrelated to its radioactive properties. Depleted uranium has a very high density and is primarily used as shielding material for other radioactive material, and as [[ballast]]. Examples include [[sailboat]] keels, as [[counterweight]]s and as shielding in industrial radiography cameras. ===Shielding in industrial radiography cameras=== Industrial radiography cameras include a very high source of [[gamma radiation]]. (Typically Ir-192.) Depleted uranium is used in the cameras as a shield to protect individuals from the gamma source. Typically the uranium will be surrounded by [[polyurethane]] foam to protect the uranium from the elements, and stainless steel will be used to house the device.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ir100.com/PROD01.html |title= The INC IR-100 Gamma Ray Camera |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> ===Coloring in consumer products=== Consumer product uses have included incorporation into [[dental porcelain]], used for [[false teeth]] to simulate the fluorescence of natural teeth, and uranium-bearing reagents used in chemistry laboratories (eg. [[uranyl acetate]], used in [[analytical chemistry]] and as a [[staining|stain]] in [[electron microscopy]]). Uranium (both depleted uranium and natural uranium) was widely used as a coloring matter for [[Fiestaware|porcelain]] and [[Uranium glass|glass]] in the 19th and early to mid 20th century. The practice was largely discontinued in the late 20th century. In 1999 concentrations of 10% depleted uranium were being used in "jaune no.17" a yellow [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] powder that was being produced in [[France]] by Cristallerie de Saint-Paul, a manufacturer of enamel [[pigment]]s. The depleted uranium used in the powder was sold by [[Cogéma]]'s Pierrelatte facility. Cogema has since discontinued the sale of depleted uranium to producers of enamel and glass.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.wise-uranium.org/dviss.html#ENAMELF |title= Depleted Uranium found as Coloring Matter in Enamel (France) |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> ===Trim weights in aircraft=== Aircraft that contain depleted uranium trim weights ([[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-100]] for example) may contain between 400 to 1,500 kg of DU. This application is controversial since the DU may enter the environment if the aircraft were to crash. The metal can also [[oxidation|oxidize]] to a fine powder in a fire. Its use has been phased out in many newer aircraft. [[Boeing]] and [[McDonnell-Douglas]] discontinued using DU counterweights in the 1980s. Depleted uranium was released during the [[Bijlmer disaster]], in which 152 kg was lost. Counterweights manufactured with [[cadmium]] [[plating]] are considered non-hazardous while the plating is intact.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/FED21DA1A772D8D9862569AF006AADBF?OpenDocument |title= Avoiding or Minimizing Encounters with Aircraft Equipped with Depleted Uranium Balance Weights during Accident Investigations |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> ===U.S. NRC general license=== U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations at [http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part040/part040-0025.html 10 CFR 40.25] establish a general license for the use of depleted uranium contained in industrial products or devices for mass-[[volume]] applications. This general license allows anyone to possess or use depleted uranium for authorized purposes. Generally, a registration form is required, along with a commitment to not abandon the material. Agreement states may have similar, or more stringent, regulations. ==Health considerations== DU is considered both a toxic and radioactive hazard that requires long term storage as low level [[nuclear waste]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Its use in incindiary ammunition is controversial because of potential adverse health effects and its release into the environment.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/95178_du12.shtml|title=Iraqi cancers, birth defects blamed on U.S. depleted uranium. | publisher=Seattle Post-Intelligencer|author=Larry Johnson}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/362484.stm | title=Depleted uranium: the lingering poison | publisher=BBC | author=Alex Kirby | date=1999-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/total_coverage/kosovo/reality_check/du.html | title=Depleted Uranium: The Invisible Threat | publisher=Mother Jones Magazine | author=J.J. Richardson | date=1999-06-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url =http://nucnews.net/2000/du/99du/990730rt.htm|title=Panel says depleted uranium shells leave birth defects, death | publisher=Reuters News Service | author=John O'Callaghan|date=1999-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.sptimes.com/2003/05/25/Columns/How_harmful_is_deplet.shtml | title=How harmful is depleted uranium? | publisher=St. Petersburg Times | author=Susan Taylor Martin|date=2003-05-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0929-11.htm | title=The War's Littlest Victim | publisher=N.Y. Daily News | author=Juan Gonzalez | date=2004-09-29}}</ref> Besides its residual radioactivity, U-238 is a heavy metal whose compounds are known from laboratory studies to be toxic to [[mammal]]s. Metallic uranium is prone to [[corrosion]] and small pieces are [[pyrophoric]] in air.<ref name=doehbk /> When depleted uranium munitions penetrate armor or burn, it creates depleted [[uranium oxide]]s dust that can be inhaled or contaminate wounds. Additionally, fragments of munitions or armor can also become embedded in the body. ===Chemical toxicity=== The chemical toxicity of depleted uranium is about a million times greater ''in vivo'' than its radiological hazard.<ref>Miller, A.C. (2002) "Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay," ''Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry,'' '''91''', pp. 246-252; PMID 12121782.</ref> Health effects of DU are determined by factors such as the extent of exposure and whether it was internal or external. Three main pathways exist by which internalization of uranium may occur: [[inhalation]], [[ingestion]], and embedded fragments or [[shrapnel]] contamination. Properties such as phase (e.g. particulate or gaseous), oxidation state (e.g. metallic or ceramic), and the solubility of uranium and its compounds influence their [[absorption]], [[Distribution (pharmacology)|distribution]], translocation, [[Clearance (medicine)|elimination]] and the resulting toxicity. For example, metallic uranium is relatively non-toxic compared to hexavalent uranium(VI) [[uranyl]] compounds such as [[uranium trioxide]].<ref>«Gmelin Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie» 8th edition, English translation, ''Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry,'' vol. U-A7 (1982) pp. 300–322.)</ref><ref>According to Rostker, B. (2000) [http://web.archive.org/*/www.deploymentlink.osd.mil/du_library/du_ii/du_ii_refs/n52en017/mr1018_7_chap1.html "Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)"] Environmental Exposure Reports Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense), citing Army Environmental Policy Institute (June, 1995) "Health and Environmental Consequences of Depleted Uranium Use in the US Army," (Champaign, Illinois) and U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (1998) "Interim Summary, Total Uranium and Isotope Uranium Results" (Operation Southern Watch) CHPPM Project No. 47-EM-8111-98.</ref> Uranium is pyrophoric when finely divided.<ref name=doehbk /> It will corrode under the influence of air and water producing insoluble uranium(IV) and soluble uranium (VI) salts. Soluble uranium salts are toxic. Uranium accumulates in several organs, such as the [[liver]], [[spleen]], and kidneys. The [[World Health Organization]] has established a daily "tolerated intake" of soluble uranium salts for the general public of 0.5 µg/kg body weight, or 35 µg for a 70 kg adult. While [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] studies on laboratory animals point to it as being an [[immunotoxin]],<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wan B, Fleming J, Schultz T, Sayler G | title = In vitro immune toxicity of depleted uranium: effects on murine macrophages, CD4+ T cells, and gene expression profiles | journal = Environ Health Perspect | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 85–91 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16393663}}</ref> [[teratogenesis|teratogen]],<ref>{{cite journal | title = A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development. | author = Arfsten D. P., Still K. R., Ritchie G. D. | journal = Toxicol Ind Health | volume = 17 | issue = 5-10 | pages = 180–91 | year = 2001 | url = | doi = 10.1191/0748233701th111oa <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot--> | pmid = 12539863 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review | author = Domingo J. L. | journal = Reprod Toxicol | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 603–9 | year = 2001 | url = | doi = 10.1016/S0890-6238(01)00181-2 | pmid = 11738513}}</ref> [[neurotoxic]],<ref>{{cite journal | title = Effects of short-term and long-term depleted uranium exposure on open-field behavior and brain lipid oxidation in rats. | author = Briner W., Murray J. | journal = Neurotoxicol Teratol | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | pages = 135–44 | year = 2005 | url = | doi = 10.1016/j.ntt.2004.09.001 | pmid = 1242351}}</ref> with [[carcinogen]]ic and [[leukaemia|leukemogenic]] potential,<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/miller_NATO_2005.pdf Internet Archive Wayback Machine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> there has been no definite link between possible health effects in laboratory animals and humans. A 2005 report by epidemiologists concluded: "the human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of [[birth defect]]s in offspring of persons exposed to DU."<ref>{{cite journal | title =Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective | author = Rita Hindin, Doug Brugge, and Bindu Panikkar | journal = Environ Health | volume = 4 | issue = 17 | pages = 135–44 | year = 2005 | url = | doi = 10.1186/1476-069X-4-17 | pmid = 15681127}}</ref> Early studies of depleted uranium aerosol exposure assumed that uranium combustion product particles would quickly settle out of the air<ref>Rostker, B. (2000) [http://www.deploymentlink.osd.mil/du_library/du_ii/du_ii_tabl1.htm "Research Report Summaries,"] ''Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)'' Environmental Exposure Report no. 2000179-2, Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense.</ref> and thus could not affect populations more than a few kilometers from target areas,<ref>Mitsakou, C., ''et al.'' (2003) [http://www.health-physics.com/pt/re/healthphys/abstract.00004032-200304000-00014.htm "Modeling of the dispersion of depleted uranium aerosol,"] ''Health Physics'' '''84'''(4), pp. 538-544.</ref> and that such particles, if inhaled, would remain undissolved in the lung for a great length of time and thus could be detected in urine.<ref>Horan, P., ''et al.'' (2003) "The quantitative analysis of depleted uranium isotopes in British, Canadian, and U.S. Gulf War veterans," ''Military Medicine'' '''167'''(8), pp. 620-627; PMID 12188230.</ref> Burning uranium droplets violently produce a gaseous vapor comprising about half of the uranium in their original mass.<ref>Carter, R.F. and K. Stewart (1970) "On the oxide fume formed by the combustion of plutonium and uranium," ''Inhaled Particles'' '''2''', pp. 819-38; PMID 5527739.</ref> [[Uranyl]] ion contamination in uranium oxides has been detected in the residue of DU munitions fires.<ref>Salbu, B. ''et al.'' (2005) "Oxidation states of uranium in depleted uranium particles from Kuwait," ''Journal of Environmental Radioactivity,'' '''78,''' 125-135.</ref><ref>Rostker, B. (2000) [http://www.deploymentlink.osd.mil/du_library/du_ii/du_ii_refs/n52en017/mr1018_7_chap1.html "Depleted Uranium in the Gulf (II)"] ''Environmental Exposure Reports'' Tech. Rep. No. 2000179-2 (Washington, DC: Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses, Department of Defense)</ref> ===Radiological hazards=== External exposure to radiation from depleted uranium is less of a concern because the [[alpha particle]] emitted by its isotopes travel only a few centimeters in air or can be stopped by a sheet of paper. Also, the uranium-235 that remains in depleted uranium emits only a small amount of low-[[energy]] gamma radiation. According to the [[World Health Organization]], a [[Ionizing radiation|radiation]] [[dose]] from it would be about 60 percent from purified natural uranium with the same mass. Approximately 90 [[microgram]]s of natural uranium, on average, exist in the human body as a result of normal intakes of water, food and air. The majority of this is found in the [[skeleton]], with the rest in various organs and tissues. The [[radiological]] dangers of pure depleted uranium are lower (60 percent) than those of naturally-occurring uranium due to the removal of the more radioactive isotopes, as well as due to its long [[half-life]] (4.46 billion years). Depleted uranium differs from natural uranium in its [[Isotopic signature|isotopic composition]], but its [[biochemistry]] is for the most part the same. For further details see [[actinides in the environment]]. ===Gulf War syndrome and soldier complaints=== [[Image:GWI DU map.gif|right|frame|Approximate area and major clashes in which DU bullets and rounds were used in the [[Gulf War]].]] {{main|Gulf War syndrome}} Increased rates of [[immune system]] disorders and other wide-ranging symptoms, including chronic pain, fatigue and memory loss, have been reported in over one quarter of combat veterans of the 1991 [[Gulf War]].<ref>[http://www1.va.gov/rac-gwvi/docs/ReportandRecommendations_2004.pdf Microsoft Word - RAC 2004 Report_FINAL.doc<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Combustion products from depleted uranium munitions are being considered as one of the potential causes by the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses, as DU was used in 30 mm and smaller caliber machine-gun bullets on a large scale for the first time in the Gulf War. Veterans of the conflicts in the Gulf, Bosnia and Kosovo have been found to have up to 14 times the usual level of chromosome abnormalities in their genes.<ref>Fleming, N. and Townsend, M. (August 11, 2002) [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,6903,772633,00.html "Gulf veteran babies 'risk deformities',"] ''The Observer,'' (London: Guardian News and Media, Ltd.)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author= Arfsten DP, Still KR, Ritchie GD | title= A review of the effects of uranium and depleted uranium exposure on reproduction and fetal development | journal= Toxicology and Industrial Health | year= 2001 | volume= 17 | pages=180–191 | doi= 10.1191/0748233701th111oa | pmid= 12539863 }}</ref> Serum-soluble genotoxic teratogens produce [[congenital disorder]]s, and in white blood cells causes immune system damage.<ref>{{cite journal | author= Schröder H, Heimers A, Frentzel-Beyme R, Schott A, Hoffman W | title= [http://www.cerrie.org/committee_papers/INFO_9-H.pdf Chromosome Aberration Analysis in Peripheral Lymphocytes of Gulf War and Balkans War Veterans] | journal= Radiation Protection Dosimetry | year= 2003 | volume= 103 | pages= 211–219 }}</ref> Human epidemiological evidence is consistent with increased risk of birth defects in the offspring of persons exposed to DU.<ref name="Hinden">Hindin, R. ''et al.'' (2005) [http://www.ehjournal.net/content/4/1/17 "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective,"] ''Environmental Health,'' vol. 4, pp. 17.</ref> A 2001 study of 15,000 February 1991 U.S. [[Gulf War]] combat veterans and 15,000 control veterans found that the Gulf War veterans were 1.8 (fathers) to 2.8 (mothers) times more likely to have children with birth defects.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kang, H., ''et al.' | year = 2001 | url = http://www.annalsofepidemiology.org/article/PIIS1047279701002459/abstract | title = Pregnancy Outcomes Among U.S. Gulf War Veterans: A Population-Based Survey of 30,000 Veterans | journal = Annals of Epidemiology | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 504–511 | pmid = 11557183 | doi = 10.1016/S1047-2797(01)00245-9 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot--> }}</ref> After examination of children's medical records two years later, the birth defect rate increased by more than 20%: :"Dr. Kang found that male Gulf War veterans reported having infants with likely birth defects at twice the rate of non-veterans. Furthermore, female Gulf War veterans were almost three times more likely to report children with birth defects than their non-Gulf counterparts. The numbers changed somewhat with medical records verification. However, Dr. Kang and his colleagues concluded that the risk of birth defects in children of deployed male veterans still was about 2.2 times that of non-deployed veterans."<ref>Department of Veterans Affairs (2003) [http://www1.va.gov/gulfwar/docs/GulfWarNov03.pdf "Q's & A's - New Information Regarding Birth Defects,"] ''Gulf War Review'' '''12'''(1), p. 10.</ref> In early 2004, the UK Pensions Appeal Tribunal Service attributed birth defect claims from a [[February 1991]] [[Gulf War]] combat veteran to depleted uranium poisoning.<ref name=scot1/><ref name=scot2/> Children of British soldiers who fought in wars in which depleted uranium ammunition was used are at greater risk of suffering genetic diseases such as [[congenital malformations]], commonly called "birth defects," passed on by their fathers. In a study of U.K. troops, "Overall, the risk of any malformation among pregnancies reported by men was 50% higher in Gulf War Veterans (GWV) compared with Non-GWVs."<ref>Doyle, P., ''et al.'' (2004) [http://ije.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/33/1/74 "Miscarriage, stillbirth and congenital malformation in the offspring of UK veterans of the first Gulf war,"] ''International Journal of Epidemiology,'' '''33'''(1), pp. 74-86; PMID 15075150.</ref> The U.S. Army has commissioned ongoing research into potential risks of depleted uranium and other projectile weapon materials like tungsten, which the U.S. Navy has used in place of DU since 1993. Studies by the U.S. Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute conclude that moderate exposures to either depleted uranium or uranium present a significant [[toxicology|toxicological]] threat.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/mcclain_NATO_2005.pdf Status of Health Concerns about Military Use of Depleted Uranium and Surrogate Metals in Armor-Penetrating Munitions]</ref> [[Image:Basrah birth defects.svg|thumb|right|250px|Graph showing the rate per 1,000 births of congenital malformations observed at Basra University Hospital, Iraq<ref>I. Al-Sadoon, ''et al.,'' writing in the Medical Journal of Basrah University, [http://www.irak.be/ned/archief/Depleted%20Uranium_bestanden/DEPLETED%20URANIUM-2-%20INCIDENCE.htm (see Table 1 here)]. This version from data by same author(s) in Wilcock, A.R., ed. (2004) "Uranium in the Wind" (Ontario: Pandora Press) ISBN 097361532X</ref>]] One particular subgroup of veterans which may be at higher risk comprises those who have retained internally fragments of DU from shrapnel wounds. A laboratory study on rats produced by the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute showed that, after a study period of 6 months, rats treated with depleted uranium coming from implanted pellets, comparable to the average levels in the urine of [[Desert Storm]] veterans with retained DU fragments, had developed a significant tendency to lose weight with respect to the control group.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/pellmar.pdf Internet Archive Wayback Machine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Substantial amounts of uranium were accumulating in their [[brains]] and [[central nervous system]]s, and showed a significant reduction of [[neurone|neuronal]] activity in the [[hippocampus]] in response to external stimuli. The conclusions of the study show that brain damage from chronic uranium intoxication is possible at lower doses than previously thought. Results from computer based neuro-cognitive tests on veterans have indeed showed a correlation between the levels of urinary uranium and "problematic performance" on tests assessing performance accuracy and efficiency.<ref>[http://www.defence.gov.au/DPE/DHS/infocentre/publications/journals/NoIDs/adfhealth_sept02/ADFHealth_3_2_50-57.pdf]</ref> Also, veterans with internally retained DU fragments might be more exposed to [[cancer]] and [[leukemia]] risks.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/miller_NATO_2005.pdf Internet Archive Wayback Machine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/www.afrri.usuhs.mil/www/outreach/pdf/livengood.pdf Internet Archive Wayback Machine<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Studies indicating negligible effects=== Studies in 2005 and earlier have concluded that DU ammunition has no measurable detrimental health effects. A 1999 [[literature review]] conducted by the [[Rand Corporation]] stated: "No evidence is documented in the literature of cancer or any other negative health effect related to the radiation received from exposure to depleted or natural uranium, whether inhaled or ingested, even at very high doses,"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/library/randrep/du/cover.html|title="A Review of the Scientific Literature as it Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses," Rand Report, 1999.}}</ref> and a RAND report authored by the U.S. Defense department undersecretary charged with evaluating DU hazards considered the debate to be more political than scientific.<ref>Bernard D. Rostker [http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P8066/ Depleted Uranium, A Case Study of Good and Evil].RAND Corporation </ref> A 2001 [[oncology]] study concluded that "the present scientific consensus is that DU exposure to humans, in locations where DU ammunition was deployed, is very unlikely to give rise to cancer induction".<ref>{{cite journal | title = Depleted Uranium - A Health, Environmental or Societal Issue? | author = James P. Mc Laughin, Michael P.R. Waligorski | journal = Archive of Oncology | year = 2001 | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 213 | url = http://www.onk.ns.ac.yu/Archive/Vol9/PDFVol9/V9n4p251.pdf}}</ref> Former [[NATO Secretary General]] [[George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen|Lord Robertson]] stated in 2001 that "the existing medical consensus is clear. The hazard from depleted uranium is both very limited, and limited to very specific circumstances".<ref>[http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/2001/s010110a.htm NATO Press Conference on Depleted Uranium]</ref> A 2002 study from the [[Australia]]n defense ministry concluded that “there has been no established increase in mortality or morbidity in workers exposed to uranium in uranium processing industries... studies of Gulf War veterans show that, in those who have retained fragments of depleted uranium following combat related injury, it has been possible to detect elevated urinary uranium levels, but no kidney toxicity or other adverse health effects related to depleted uranium after a decade of follow-up.”<ref>[http://www.defence.gov.au/DPE/DHS/infocentre/publications/journals/NoIDs/adfhealth_sept02/ADFHealth_3_2_50-57.pdf Military medical aspects of depleted uranium munitions]</ref> Pier Roberto Danesi, then-director of the [[IAEA]] Seibersdorf +Laboratory, stated in 2002 that "There is a consensus now that DU does not represent a health threat".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/297/5588/1801?ck=nck |title=ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY: New Findings Allay Concerns Over Depleted Uranium |publisher=Science Magazine |author=Richard Stone |date=2002-09-13}}</ref> The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] reported in 2003 that, "based on credible scientific evidence, there is no proven link between DU exposure and increases in human cancers or other significant health or environmental impacts," although "Like other heavy metals, DU is potentially poisonous. In sufficient amounts, if DU is ingested or inhaled it can be harmful because of its chemical toxicity. High concentration could cause kidney damage." The IAEA concluded that while depleted uranium is a potential [[carcinogen]], there is no evidence that it has been carcinogenic in humans.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/DU/faq_depleted_uranium.shtml |title= IAEA Depleted Uranium Factsheet |accessdate= |author= |date= |year= |publisher= |pages= }}</ref> A 2005 study by [[Sandia National Laboratory|Sandia National Laboratories’]] Al Marshall used mathematical models to analyze potential health effects associated with accidental exposure to depleted uranium during the 1991 Gulf War. Marshall’s study concluded that the reports of cancer risks from DU exposure are not supported by veteran medical statistics, but Marshall did not consider reproductive health effects.<ref>[http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases/2005/def-nonprolif-sec/snl-dusand.pdf An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study], Albert C. Marshall, Sandia National Laboratories</ref> ===Other contamination cases=== On [[October 4]], [[1992]], an [[El Al]] [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-F]] cargo aircraft [[El Al Flight 1862|Flight 1862]], crashed into an apartment building in [[Amsterdam]]. Local residents and rescue workers complained of various unexplained health issues which were being attributed to the release of hazardous materials during the crash and subsequent fires. Authorities conducted an epidemiological study in 2000 of those believed to be affected by the accident. The study concluded that there was no evidence to link depleted uranium (used as a counter balance in the plane) to any of the reported health complaints.<ref>{{cite journal | author= Uijt de Haag P.A. and Smetsers R.C. and Witlox H.W. and Krus H.W. and Eisenga A.H. | title=Evaluating the risk from depleted uranium after the Boeing 747-258F crash in Amsterdam, 1992. | journal=J Hazard Mater. | year=2000 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10863013&dopt=Abstract}}</ref> In 2005, uranium metalworkers at a Bethlehem plant near [[Buffalo, New York]], exposed to frequent occupational uranium inhalation, were found to have some of the same patterns of symptoms as [[Gulf War Syndrome]] victims.<ref>Bonfatti, J.F. (December 16, 2004) [http://www.factsofwny.org/buff12162004.htm "Former Marine suffered from secret uranium work at Bethlehem, fought battle,"] ''Buffalo News.''</ref><ref>Lombardi, K. (June 21, 2005) [http://villagevoice.com/news/0525,lombardi,65154,5.html "Stirring Up the Toxic Dust,"] ''The Village Voice.''</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== {{linkfarm}} {{wiktionary}} ===Scientific bodies=== * Canadian [http://www.umrc.net/ Uranium Medical Research Centre] * German [http://www.uraniumweaponsconference.de/ World Uranium Weapons Conference] * US [http://www.hps.org/ Health Physics Society] ===United Nations=== * [http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/env/du/en/index.html "Depleted Uranium: Sources, Exposure and Health Effects,"] World Health Organization, Ionizing Radiation Unit, 2001 (see [http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/pub_meet/en/Depluranium4.pdf Chapter 8, "The Chemical Toxicity of Uranium,"] in particular.) * [http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.2002.38.En?Opendocument "Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminate effect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering"]<br/>(The UN 2002 report) * The "Report of the World Health Organization Depleted Uranium Mission to Kosovo" ([http://www.euro.who.int/document/e71919.pdf Draft text] [[28 January]] 2001). Undertaken at the request of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and Head of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo ([[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]]), from [[22 January]] to [[31 January]] 2001. * [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/DU/du_qaa.shtml Depleted Uranium and the IAEA] ===Scientific reports=== *[http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/BiH_DU_report.pdf "Depleted Uranium in Bosnia and Herzegovina - Postconflict Assessment"] by [[UN Environment Programme]] *[http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1164_web.pdf "Radiological Conditions in Areas of Kuwait With Residues of Depleted Uranium"] by [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] *[http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/Iraq_DU.pdf "Technical Report on Capacity-building for the Assessment of Depleted Uranium in Iraq"] by [[UN Environment Programme]] *[http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1018.7.pdf "A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses"] by [[RAND]] *[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp150.html U.S. Center for Disease Control's Toxicological Profile for Uranium] (includes discussion of teratogenic and immunotoxic effects) * Hindin, R. ''et al.'' (2005) [http://www.ehjournal.net/content/4/1/17 "Teratogenicity of depleted uranium aerosols: A review from an epidemiological perspective,"] ''Environmental Health,'' vol. 4, pp. 17. * Domingo, J.L. (2001) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0890-6238(01)00181-2 "Reproductive and developmental toxicity of natural and depleted uranium: a review"] ''Reproductive Toxicology,'' '''15,''' 603–609. * Lestaevel, P. ''et al.'' (2005) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2005.05.002 "The brain is a target organ after acute exposure to depleted uranium"] ''Toxicology,'' '''212,''' 219–226. * [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/landing.asp?id=1243 Depleted Uranium] article from the [[Royal Society]] * [http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases/2005/def-nonprolif-sec/snl-dusand.pdf An Analysis of Uranium Dispersal and Health Effects Using a Gulf War Case Study] by Sandia National Laboratories * [http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/Depleted-Uranium.pdf Depleted Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet] by Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment Division * [http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/Uranium.pdf Uranium Human Health Fact Sheet] ===Other publications=== * [http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/faq_17apr.htm Gulflink answers to FAQ's on military use of depleted uranium] * [http://www.janes.com/defence/news/jcbw/jcbw060426_1_n.shtml Depleted uranium: the health debate] Extract from article discussing the medical effects of depleted uranium * [http://www.cadu.org.uk/ Campaign Against Depleted Uranium] * [http://web.ead.anl.gov/uranium/ Depleted UF6 Management Information Network] – on U.S. Department of Energy's inventory of depleted uranium hexafluoride. * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uranium/0,7368,419839,00.html Guardian Unlimited's Special Report on Depleted Uranium] * [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Features/DU/faq_depleted_uranium.shtml International Atomic Energy Agency Depleted Uranium FAQ] * [http://www.mod.uk/issues/depleted_uranium/du_research.htm Proposal for Research on Depleted Uranium] (UK Ministry of Defence) * [http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/WhatWeDo/HealthandSafety/DSC/DirectorateOfSafetyClaimsdscHealthPhysicsDepletedUranium.htm UK MOD Directorate of Safety & Claims (DS&C) Health Physics - Depleted Uranium] *[http://www.bandepleteduranium.org/ International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons] ===Video=== *[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U93PBZIyqBs "Depleted Uranium Hazard Awareness"] US Army training video (1995) *[http://www.uruknet.de/?s1=1&p=40206&s2=18 "The Doctor, the Depleted Uranium, and the Dying Children"] documentary film by Freider Wagner and Valentin Thurn * ''[http://vawatchdog.org/07/nf07/nfAUG07/nf082207-1.htm Conspiracy Test: Gulf War Illness]'' investigative report by the [[Discovery Channel]] {{Nuclear Technology}} [[Category:Uranium]] [[Category:Nuclear materials|Uranium, Depleted]] [[Category:Ammunition]] [[Category:Metals]] [[Category:Vehicle armour]] [[Category:Weapons]] [[Category:Gulf War syndrome]] [[Category:Medical controversies]] [[Category:Environmental controversies]] [[Category:Element toxicology]] [[ar:اليورانيوم المنضب]] [[de:Uranmunition]] [[es:Uranio empobrecido]] [[fa:اورانیوم تضعیف شده]] [[fr:Uranium appauvri]] [[ko:감손 우라늄]] [[hr:Osiromašeni uranij]] [[id:Depleted uranium]] [[it:Uranio impoverito]] [[he:אורניום מדולל]] [[hu:Szegényített urán]] [[nl:Verarmd uranium]] [[ja:劣化ウラン]] [[no:Utarmet uran]] [[pl:Uran zubożony]] [[pt:Urânio empobrecido]] [[ro:Uraniu sărăcit]] [[ru:Обеднённый уран]] [[simple:Depleted uranium]] [[sk:Ochudobnený urán]] [[sv:Utarmat uran]] [[tr:Zayıflatılmış Uranyum]]