Doctorate
188886
225890977
2008-07-15T21:53:04Z
Nicholas Jackson
420174
This list doesn't need to be exhaustive, and probably has enough examples for now.
[[Image:doctordivinity.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aquatint]] of a [[Doctor of Divinity]] at the [[University of Oxford]], in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From [[Rudolph Ackermann]]'s ''History of Oxford'', 1814.]]
A '''doctorate''' is an [[academic degree]] that indicates a high, if not the highest, level of academic achievement. A [[terminal degree]] in most countries, some [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]an countries place the doctorate second only to the [[habilitation]].
The term ''doctorate'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''docere'', meaning "to teach", shortened from the full Latin title ''licentia docendi'', meaning "license to teach." This was translated from the equivalent [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term ''[[Ijazah|ijazat attadris]]'', which was a distinction granted to certain [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]], thus qualifying them to teach.<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April-June 1989|pages=175-182 [175-77]}}</ref>
==History==
{{Refimprovesect|date=June 2008}}
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ''[[Ijazah|ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd]]'' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval [[Madrasah]]s which taught [[Sharia|Islamic law]]. It was equivalent to the [[Doctor of Laws]] qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the ''[[Madh'hab]]'' legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a [[guild]] [[Law school|school of law]], usually four years for the basic [[Undergraduate education|undergraduate]] course" and at least ten years for a [[Postgraduate education|post-graduate]] course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral [[Test (student assessment)|examination]] to determine the originality of the candidate's [[Dissertation|theses]]," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in [[disputation]]s set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate [[Legal education|student of law]]." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of ''[[faqih]]'' (meaning "[[master of law]]"), ''[[mufti]]'' (meaning "professor of [[Fatwā|legal opinions]]") and ''mudarris'' (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as ''[[Magister (degree)|magister]]'', ''[[professor]]'' and ''[[doctor]]'' respectively.<ref name=Makdisi/>
The concept of a doctorate was soon introduced into [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]] as a license to teach at a [[university]].<ref name=Makdisi/> In this sense, doctoral training was a form of [[apprenticeship]] to a [[guild]]. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the [[master's degree]].
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in [[English (language)|English-speaking]] universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in [[Holy Orders|holy orders]]. After that time the [[Germany|German]] practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an [[Academia|academic]] career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "[[honorary doctorate]]s" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention.
The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded [[honoris causa]]. The [[habilitation]] is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a [[Privatdozent]] (in Germany) or professor position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree ''doctor of science'' (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the [[USSR]]/[[Russia]] and many post-Soviet countries.
== Types of doctorate ==
:''See [[Doctor (title)]] for more information.''
Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor", usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor's occupation.
Broadly speaking, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories:
[[Image:Professors.JPG|thumb|right|Academic doctors gather before the April 2008 Commencement exercises at [[Brigham Young University]]]]
=== Research doctorates ===
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of both mastery of research methods (as evidenced in class grades and a comprehensive examination) and academic research that is ideally publishable in a [[peer-reviewed]] [[academic journal]], but that will minimally be assessed by submission and [[Thesis committee|defense]] of a [[Dissertation|thesis or dissertation]].<ref>http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm</ref> The best-known degree of this type is that of [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (PhD) awarded throughout the world; others include the U.S. degrees of [[Doctor of Engineering]] (DEng) and [[Doctor of Science]] (DSc or ScD), the UK [[Engineering Doctorate]] (EngD), and the German degree of ''Doctor rerum naturalium'' (Dr.rer.nat.).
The minimum time required to earn a doctorate varies by country, and can be as short as three years (excluding bachelor's and master's studies). However, some candidates can take anywhere from five to ten years to complete. The median number of years to completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven years.<ref>http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm</ref> Students are discouraged from taking unnecessarily long to graduate by having their financial support ([[stipend]]s, research funds, etc.) relinquished. Furthermore, doctoral applicants were previously required to have a [[master's degree]], but many programs will now accept students straight out of undergraduate studies.<ref>http://www.owen.vanderbilt.edu/vanderbilt/Programs/phd/phd-admissions/index.cfm</ref><ref>http://www.mgmt.purdue.edu/programs/phd/admissions/</ref>
=== Higher doctorates ===<!--[[Higher doctorate]] redirects to this section title-->
In some countries, especially the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]] and some [[Scandinavia]]n, [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations or former [[USSR]] countries, there is a higher tier of
research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the [[Doctor of Science]] (DSc/ScD) and [[Doctor of Letters]] (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the [[Denmark|Danish]] doctorate (''doktorgrad''; e.g. ''dr.theol., doctor theologiæ'', Latin for Doctor of Theology).
The [[Germany|German]] [[habilitation]] postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.
Higher doctorates are often also awarded [[honoris causa]] when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
=== Professional doctorates ===
{{main|First professional degree}}
[[Image:Graduation McGeorge.jpg|right|thumb|[[Juris Doctor]] candidates gather before commencement at the [[University of Pacific]] [[McGeorge School of Law]], May 2008]]
<!--This isn't intended to be a comprehensive list, just a few illustrative examples from various countries.
Please don't add any more without discussing it on the talk page.-->
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music or ministry. Examples include the U.S. degrees of [[Doctor of Medicine]] (MD), [[Doctor of Veterinary Medicine]] (DVM) and [[Juris Doctor]] (JD), the Dutch [[Professional Doctorate in Engineering]] (PDEng), and the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] degrees of Doctor of Dental Medicine (MDDr.) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr.).
The term ''Professional Doctorate'' is also used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes. Among others, these include the degrees of [[Doctor of Education]] (EdD), Doctor of Applied Linguistics (DAppLing), [[Doctor of Practical Theology]] (DPT)<ref>http://www.reference-global.com/doi/abs/10.1515/IJPT.2006.020</ref> and [[Doctor of Business Administration]] (DBA).<ref>http://www.hbs.edu/doctoral/programs/dbavsphd.html</ref>
=== Honorary doctorates ===
{{main|Honorary degree}}
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree ''honoris causa'' (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.<ref>https://berkley-u.edu/hon_deg.html</ref><ref>http://www.cmu.edu/cmnews/extra/040510_doctorates.html</ref> Some universities (e.g., [[Cornell University]]<ref>[http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1052974800#question19 Dear Uncle Ezra - Questions for Thursday, May 15, 2003 - Cornell University<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, the [[University of Virginia]]<ref>[http://www.virginia.edu/registrar/records/05-06gradrec/chapter4/chapter4-1.htm#honorary University Regulations: Academic Regulations: Graduate Record 2005-2006</ref>) do not award honorary degrees, feeling the bestowal unethical.
== Country-specific practice ==
{{main|List of doctoral degrees awarded by country}}
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
<!-- Many countries' programs are current hidden because they do not reference any citations. Feel free to modify and unhide text ONLY with appropriate citations. Thank you. -->
===Argentina===
Similar to other countries, in [[Argentina]] the doctorate (''doctorado'')<ref>http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver#</ref> is the highest. The intention is that candidates produce true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.<ref>http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf</ref> The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This Committee should be composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor is received after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.<ref>http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver&idioma=en</ref> Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees.<ref>http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf</ref> Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the [[:es:Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria|National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation]]<ref>[http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1103.php Argentine Educational Portal: Quality Assurance]</ref>, which is a decentralized agency in Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.<ref>http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=3&apps=64&idioma=en</ref>
<!-- === Brazil ===
The candidate is normally required to have received a [[Master's degree]] in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those willing to enroll in a doctoral program in Brazil. The admission process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant for the duration of the doctorate.
The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners. After completion of the program, which normally lasts around 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of ''Doutor'' (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. ''Doutor em Direito'' (Doctor of Laws), ''Doutor em Ciências da Computação'' (Doctor of Computer Sciences), ''Doutor em Filosofia'' (Doctor of Philosophy), ''Doutor em Economia'' (Doctor of Economics), ''Doutor em Engenharia'' (Doctor of Engineering), ''Doutor em Medicina'' (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of ''Doutor em Ciências'' (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free as mandated by the
[[Constitution of Brazil|Brazilian constitution]]. Several graduate students with good academic standing are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (''Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico'') and CAPES (''Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior''). Personal scholarships are also provided by the various FAP's (''Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa'') at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of [[São Paulo state|São Paulo]], FAPERJ in the state of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and FAPEMIG in the state of [[Minas Gerais]]. Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD.
A degree of ''Doutor'' usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to that of Assistant Professor in the United States. Progression to full professorship at the rank known as ''Professor Titular'' requires however that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes many years. In the federal university system, individuals who hold a doctorate and are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of Associate Professor and, then, become eligible to take the competitive exam for full professorship provided that a professorship is available. In the São Paulo state universities however, progression to the rank of Associate Professor and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship is conditioned on an individual's obtaining first the qualification of [[:pt:Livre-docência|Livre-docente]], which is similar to the [[Habilitation]] in the German university system and requires, in addition to a previous doctoral degree, the submission of a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and also passing a written exam. -->
<!-- === Denmark ===
In [[Denmark]] there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an [[MPhil]] in the [[United Kingdom]] system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D. (replaced [[licentiate]] in 1988), and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.
For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal [[disputation]]. In this disputation, the candidate (called ''præces'') defends his thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the [[auditorium]] ''(ex auditorio)''. -->
<!-- === Finland ===
Prior to introduction of [[Bologna process]], Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1800 hours) of formal coursework of doctoral students. The general requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision on the scale of coursework needed to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties and even to individual professors. In fields of Engineering and Science, the required amount of coursework varies between 60 and 70 [[ECTS]]. Receiving the doctorate also requires a written thesis, the research for which usually takes three to six years. Thesis can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying together the individual parts. If a student is unable or unwilling to write a dissertation, he may qualify for [[licenciate]] degree of his field by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually worth of one year of research.
In the area of fine arts, the dissertation may be substituted by artistic merits and performances as decided by the degree-awarding faculty. -->
<!-- === France ===
In France, the doctorate (''doctorat'') is always a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research. Except for a very small number of private institutions, only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The master's degree in research (Master Recherche [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_%28France%29]) or the former '''[[DEA (former French degree)|diplôme d'études approfondies]]''' (DEA) is a prerequisite for pursuing a doctoral program. The official normal duration of the doctoral work is three years. The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 300 pages, and often substantially more (unlike in the US for example). There are ~15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~10000 doctorates awarded.
Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship, the most well known being the ''allocation de recherche du ministère de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche'' (4000 granted every years, gross salary of 18,369 euros in February 2007).
During the preparation of the doctorate, the candidate has had, since 2002, to follow a limited number of courses, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by two external reviewers designated by the head of the institution. According to the reports of the reviewer, the head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not. The members of the jury are designated by the head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics. The supervisor of the candidate is generally member of the jury, as well as the reviewers of the thesis. The maximum number of members in the jury is 8. The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h30 - 2h30 of questions from the jury. Defense and questions are public. At the end of the series of questions, the jury deliberates in private for 20-30 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or "postponed". "Postponement" is very rare. The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction: "honourable", which is not highly considered, "very honourable", which is the usual distinction, and "very honourable with the congratulation of the jury" ( [[Très honorable avec félicitations]]). Because there exist no national criteria for the award of this last distinction, many institutions have decided not to award it. New regulations concerning this distinction were set in 2006.
Confusingly the title of doctor (''docteur'') is used only by the medical and pharmatical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (''diplôme d'État de docteur''), which is a first-degree and professional doctorate obtained after at least 9 years of studies. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.
Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate (''doctorat d'État'', the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (''doctorat de troisième cycle''), created in 1954 and shorter that the state doctorate, and the diploma of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur''), created in 1923, for technical research. Since 1984, there is only type of doctoral degree, simply called "doctorate". A special diploma has been created called the "habilitation to supervise research" (''habilitation à diriger des recherches''), which is a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older state doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain [[tenure]] in other systems.) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work. -->
=== Germany ===
A research doctorate usually takes three to five years to complete. In Germany, most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields. The degree is written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompanies the person's name (unlike in German-speaking [[Switzerland]]).
There are no first degree doctorates but medical students can obtain a "Dr. med." after one semester of mostly undergraduate research or data evaluation. The "Dr. med." is not equivalent to a PhD but to a Masters degree. Medical Students going into research can obtain a research doctorate in some subjects, such as molecular medicine or human biology.
Upon the completion of the habilitation paper (''Habilitationsschrift'') a senior doctorate (habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the [[habilitation]]. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. It authorizes the owner to teach at (German) universities ("facultas docendi"), plus qualifies the holder of the "habil." to teacher in a certain subject ("venia legendi"). This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of ''Privatdozent'' and [[Professor]]. Now, with the Bachelor/Master model and the ''Juniorprofessoren'' to be introduced, this has already changed partially.
<!-- ===India===
In [[India]] doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities. Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level(post graduate degree). Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is about 5 years. The most commonly awarded doctoral level degree is Ph.D. There are some other doctoral level degrees such as DBA ( Doctorate of Business Administration), LLD (Doctorate in Laws) and D.Sc (Doctorate in Science). Some of the institutions of the national level importance such as [http://www.iimb.ernet.in Indian Institute of Management] call their doctoral level programmes as fellow programme. -->
<!-- === Ireland===
The Irish academic system and the British system have many similarities, reflecting both the colonial experience of Ireland, and the close and enduring links between the 2 countries. The sequence of degrees is Bachelor (BA, BSc and others) Master (MA, MSc, MPH and others) Doctor (PhD, MD, LLD, DD, DMus), Higher degrees on the UK model also exist, but the only one in any common use is the DSc{{Fact|date=October 2007}}. -->
<!-- === Netherlands, The ===
The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: ''propaedeuse'', ''candidate'', ''doctorandus'' (drs.) and ''doctor'' (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The ''candidate'' degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after three years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the ''[[doctorandus]]'' title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the ''doctorandus'' degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree.
Those who choose to can enroll in a doctorate system after achieving a masters degree (or equivalent) recognised by the Dutch government. The most common way is to be hired as ''promovendus'' ([[research assistant]] with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research, and write a doctoral dissertation (this course is normally four years, although the average duration to completions is about 5.5 years). It is also possible to conduct research without the research assistant status, for example through a business sponsored research laboratory, or in spare time. Regardless of the way, every thesis has to be supported by a promotor (full university professor who has the role of principal advisor) before it can be submitted. The written thesis is subjected to review by a committee of experts in the relevant academic field; who either approve or do not approve the submitted thesis. Failures at this stage are rare as the supervisors will rather hold back submission (causing delay beyond the 4 years) than allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted. Especially the promotor looses face with her/his colleagues allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted. After approval by the reviewers, the doctor's degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session (failure durng this session is in theory possible but in practice this never happens).
The doctor title is the highest academic degree one can attain in the Netherlands. There is only one title "doctor", which is equivalent to PhD. There have been some attempts to introduce a professional doctorate, e.g. at the three Universities of Technology in the Netherlands ([[Eindhoven University of Technology]], [[Technical University Delft]], and [[University of Twente]]) who award the "Professional Doctorate in Engineering" (PDEng) (which replaced an old post-master degree). However, this study is too short (only two years) to be a real doctorate and does lack the crucial elements to be recognized as such. Although the name and professional course is registered at the Royal Dutch Institute for Engineers (KIvI), the degree is not is acknowledged by the Dutch law as a doctoral degree and is not incorporated in the Dutch Higher Education Act. Holders of the title PDEng are not allowed to entitle it a doctorate and to use the title of "doctor" in the Netherlands and internationally. -->
<!-- === Norway ===
These above degrees (and in addition dr. ing.) were also used in [[Norway]], which traditionally used the same system as Denmark. Besides dr. philos,
which is awarded to people who don't follow an organized degree program, new candidates are no longer awarded these degrees, but are instead
awarded a Ph.D. The new Ph.D. degree was introduced in the early 2000s.
The Ph.D. in Norway is not a lower-level research doctorate. -->
<!-- === Poland ===
Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and [[habilitation]] (''habilitacja'') as second. The award of the title of ''doktor'' (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4-5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, with or without an obligation to teach some classes), but can also be obtained without a formal participation in the doctoral studies. In order to become a ''doktor habilitowany'' (i.e. being awarded second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation, preceded with several years of deep field studies and have recognized research record. While recently, according to Polish law, also candidates without [[habilitation]] are theoretically eligible to become professors, in practice it is extremely rare.
To become a doctor one needs to write a [[dissertation]] (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called ''defence of the dissertation'' (''obrona pracy doktorskiej''). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and subject related to dissertation title.
A prospective doctor must have also published some works (articles, books) beforehand, otherwise s/he would not be allowed to start the doctoral proceedings (''przewód doktorski'').
The title of a doctor is abbreviated as ''dr'' (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. ''dr Kowalski''.
''Doktor'' is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation ''dr n. med.'' (doctor of medical studies) before or after their surname.
The title of ''dr inż.'' (doctor of engineering) is another specific doctoral titles. ''Dr n.hum.'' means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field. -->
<!-- === Portugal ===
*Doutor (Doctor)
In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" degrees (a "Licenciatura" is something between a Bachelor and a Master Degree in most countries, and currently (Jan 2006) represents 4 or 5 years of graduate studies; except in the following Licenciaturas: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dental Medicine, which are six years long and the degree is equivalent to DPharm, DM/MD, etc. After the [[Bologna process|Bologna Process]] reform takes place in Portugal, it will have 3 to 4 years and be equivalent to any Bachelor degree in the E.U. countries that adopt this process). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, Engineer), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term "Doctor" in Portugal is used for those with a PhD and, instead of the title "Dr.", use "Doutor" (the extended form) or "Professor Doutor" (because, usually, PhD's are university professors). -->
<!-- === Russia ===
Many post-Soviet countries, including [[Russian Federation]], have a two-stage research degree obtaining path, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named ''"[[Kandidat]] of <...> Sciences"'' (for instance, [[Kandidat]] of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as an equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (Ph.D.) degree and requires at least (and typically more than) three years of post-graduate research which is finished by defence of a thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (a so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in a foreign language, and in the history and philosophy of science. After additional certification by the corresponding experts, the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.)
The second stage, [[Doktor nauk]], ''"Doctor of <...> Sciences"''. It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. A position of Professor can be held only by a Doctor of Sciences.
The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency ([[Higher Attestation Commission]]); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree.
Soviet scientists holding degree of Candidate take positions of Post doctoral fellows, Post doctoral research associates etc. -->
<!-- === Slovakia ===
Slovakia offers professional doctorates (degrees that do not require completion of a thesis or dissertation and are
awarded after completion of the required course of study), first-degree doctorates (degrees that require the viva-voce defense of a written graduation theses; no classic study; written before the name, as "JUDr. Smith"), research doctorates (degrees that require studies, examinations and the viva-voce defense of a written comprehensive thesis/dissertation; the average time of graduates, starting with research until the disputatio, is 3-5 years; They are written after the name, that is, "Smith, PhD."), and the higher doctorates, or [[habilitation|habilitations]].
Both Czech and Slovak orthography state that "philosophiae doctor" is abbreviated as "PhD." analogously to all of other degrees. However, perhaps under influence of international use of "Ph.D.", in the Czech law of scientific and academical degrees this foreign form is used. In fact, Czech lawgivers have enacted an orthographic mistake. -->
=== Spain ===
Doctor Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998)<ref>http://www.upm.es/laupm/organos_gobierno/normativa/NormativaDoctorado0203.pdf (in Spanish)</ref>, ''Decreto Real'' (in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO <ref>[http://teseo.mec.es/teseo/jsp/teseo.jsp Base de Datos TESEO<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs, and less than 10% of 1st year Ph.D. students are finally granted a Doctorate<ref>http://sandevid.com/uploads/media/DOCTORADO_Y_TESIS_DOCTORALES_POR_SEXO_56e4d2_06.pdf</ref>.
All doctoral programs are of research nature. A minimum of 5 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages:
1) A 3-year long period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3 Professors. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor).
2) A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted (Unsatisfactory, Pass, "Cum laude", and "Summa cum laude"). Those Doctors granted their degree "Summa Cum Laude" are allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".
A Doctor Degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University.
The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Doctors and Grandees/Dukes can take seat and cover their heads before the King<ref>[http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8 Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación. Protocolo y Etiqueta<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14th 1994")<ref>[http://www.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/doc.php?coleccion=iberlex&id=1995/12243&codmap= Boletín Oficial del Estado. Texto del Documento<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.
<!-- === Switzerland ===
In [[Switzerland]], The master's degree or the DEA '''[[DEA (former French degree)|diplôme d'études approfondies]]''' is a prerequisite for pursuing doctoral program. The duration is 3 to 5 years, depending on the field. There are the so-called the schools of doctorat for the students who succeed the first year of doctorat. -->
=== United Kingdom ===
All doctorates (except for those awarded ''honoris causa'') granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.
Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the [[EngD]], EdD, [[Doctor of Social Science|DSocSci]] and DClinPsych require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis. In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic-oriented and normally require full-time study at the university, whereas, in an EngD program, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees.
The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.
The universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Sussex|Sussex]] denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil. The [[University of York]] also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently.
====Higher doctorates in the United Kingdom====
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common doctorates of this type are those in [[Doctor of Divinity|Divinity]] (DD), [[Doctor of Medicine|Medicine]] (MD or DM), [[Doctor of Laws|Laws]] (LLD), [[Doctor of Civil Law|Civil Law]] (DCL), [[Doctor of Music|Music]] (DMus or MusD), [[Doctor of Letters|Letters]] (DLitt or LittD) and [[Doctor of Science|Science]] (DSc or ScD).
Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of [[Doctor of Canon Law]] was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign of [[Mary Tudor]]) did not survive the [[Protestant reformation]]<ref name=hm>W N Hargreaves-Mawdsley, ''A History of Academical Dress in Europe Until the End of the Eighteenth Century'', Oxford (1963) pages 103 and 115</ref>, a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by [[Henry VIII]], [[History of the Church of England|founder]] of the [[Church of England]]. The DMus was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of [[Convocation]] (that is, to be a [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]]). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.
====Honorary doctorates in the United Kingdom====
Most British universities award degrees ''honoris causa'' in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of [[Doctor of the University]] (DUniv) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.
=== United States ===
====Research doctorate in the United States====
[[Image:Woolsey Hall, Yale University.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yale University]] awarded the first doctorate in the U.S.]]
The most common research doctorate is the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the [[1861]] [[Yale University]] commencement. The [[University of Pennsylvania]] followed shortly thereafter in 1870, while [[Harvard]] (1872) and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] (1879) also followed suit.<ref>http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/97-04-21-01.all.html</ref>
The requirements for obtaining Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes, passing of a comprehensive examination, and defense of a dissertation.<ref>http://math.arizona.edu/gradprogram/handbook/phdrequirements.html</ref>
Other fields of study also have their own research doctorates, including the doctorate of theology and the doctor of juridical science, among many others.
====Professional doctorates in the United States====
In the [[United States]], there are numerous degrees which incorporate the word "doctor" and are known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include [[audiology]], [[chiropractic]], [[dentistry]], [[education]], [[law]], [[medicine]], [[occupational therapy]], [[optometry]], [[Osteopathic medicine in the United States|osteopathic medicine]], [[pharmacy]], [[physical therapy]], [[podiatry]], [[practical theology]], [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]], and many others that usually require such degress for [[licensure]], including several in development such as that for [[medical physics]]. Generally, these degrees are considered "[[first professional degree]]s."
Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the profession.<ref>Reed, A. (1921). ‘’Training for the Public Profession of the Law, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15.’’ Boston: Merrymount Press.</ref> These professional doctorates were more rigorous than their bachelor equivalents in the U.S. and replaced them. The first professional doctorate was the [[M.D.]] in 1807,<ref>Reed, A. (1921). ‘’Training for the Public Profession of the Law, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15.’’ Boston: Merrymount Press, page 162.</ref> which was nearly sixty years before the first Ph.D. was awarded in the U.S. in 1861.<ref>http://www.yale.edu/timeline/1861/index.html</ref> The [[Juris Doctor]] was subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M.D. was established.<ref>Harno, A. (2004) [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=PEVayHaV4XYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=history+of+legal+education&ots=AszgnpjJuy&sig=KF4jCw63Gr3fftEOFjT5X5QcccM#PPA16,M1 Legal Education in the United States], New Jersey: Lawbook Exchange, page 50.</ref>
====Professional doctorates in Korea and Japan====
As part of a reform plan adopted in 2004, South Korea is creating a system of American-style graduate law schools which will award a Juris Doctor (professional doctoral) degree. Only graduates of these law schools, scheduled to matriculate their first students in 2009, will be eligible to take the bar exam.<ref>25 universities approved to open law schools, Korea.Net, http://www.korea.net/news/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20080130006 (Jan. 30, 2008).</ref> In Japan, a similar reform was started in 2004 and the degree of Juris Doctor is awarded to graduates of three year graduate studies in law.
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==See also==
* [[List of fields of doctoral studies]]
{{Academic degrees}}
[[Category:Doctoral degrees| ]]
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