Dry cleaning
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2008-07-01T22:32:45Z
ProhibitOnions
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/* Process */ Put metric unit first, 30 degrees is a worldwide standard, 85 Fahrenheit a conversion
{{For|the act of covering tracks by spies|spy}}
[[Image:Dry clean rack.jpg|thumb|Many dry cleaners place cleaned clothes inside thin clear plastic garment bags.]]
'''Dry cleaning''' is any cleaning process for [[clothing]] and [[textile]]s using an organic [[solvent]] rather than [[water]]. The solvent used is typically [[tetrachloroethylene]] (perchloroethylene), abbreviated "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public. Dry cleaning is necessary for cleaning items which would otherwise be damaged by water and [[soap]] or [[detergent]]. It may be used if hand washing— needed for some delicate fabrics — is excessively laborious.
== History ==
Dry cleaning uses non-water-based solvents to remove soil and stains from clothes. The potential for using [[petroleum]] based solvents in this manner was discovered in the mid-19th century by French dye-works owner [[Jean Baptiste Jolly]], who noticed that his tablecloth became cleaner after his maid spilled [[kerosene]] on it, and developed a service cleaning people's clothes in this manner, which he termed "nettoyage à sec," or "dry cleaning" in English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.howstuffworks.com/dry-cleaning1.htm|title=How Dry Cleaning Works|accessdate=2006-03-30}}</ref>
Early dry cleaners used petroleum-based solvents, such as [[gasoline]] and kerosene. Flammability concerns led Keith Anderson of westquarter, a dry cleaner from Laurieston to develop [[Stoddard solvent]] as a slightly less [[flammable]] alternative to gasoline-based solvents. The use of highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions, resulting in government regulation of dry cleaners.
After [[World War I]], dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and had improved cleaning power. By the mid-1930s the dry cleaning industry had adopted [[tetrachloroethylene]] (perchloroethylene), colloquially called "perc," as the ideal solvent. It has excellent cleaning power, and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most garments. However, perc was also the first chemical to be classified as a carcinogen by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (a classification later withdrawn). In 1993 the [[California]] Air Resources Board (CARB) adopted an airborne toxic control measure (ATCM) to reduce perc emissions from dry cleaning operations. The dry cleaning industry is now beginning to replace perc with other chemicals and/or methods.
== Process ==
[[Image:Drycleanmachine.JPG|thumb|Modern dry clean machine]]
A dry cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic [[washing machine]], and [[clothes dryer]]. Garments are placed into a washing/extraction chamber (referred to as the basket, or drum), which is the core of the machine. The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell. The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the garment load. The basket capacity is between about 10 and 40 kg, or 20 and 80 lb, of garments.
During the wash cycle the chamber is filled approximately 1/3 full of solvent and begins to rotate, agitating the clothing. The solvent temperature is maintained at 30°C (85°F), as a higher temperature may extract [[dye]] from garments, causing color loss. During the wash cycle, the chamber is constantly fed a supply of fresh solvent from the working solvent tank while spent solvent is removed and sent to a filter unit comprising a [[distill]]ation boiler and condenser. The ideal flow rate is one gallon of solvent per pound of garments (roughly 8 litres of solvent per kilogram of garments) per minute, depending on the size of the machine.
Before being placed in the machine, garments are inspected for stains and soils by the operator. Depending on the nature of the soil, a catalyst may be applied to it. This depends on the operator's judgment of the makeup of the textile and the soil itself. Oil-based soils (such as [[Fat|grease]], [[oil]], or [[lipstick]]) typically are removed well by perchloroethylene, while water-based soils (such as [[coffee]], [[wine]], [[perspiration]], [[blood]], and [[semen]]) will need a [[catalyst]] to allow the dry cleaning solvent to emulsify and lift them. Food-based grease soils fall in between the two, and a milder catalyst may be applied.
Garments are also checked for foreign objects. Items such as plastic pens will dissolve in the solvent bath and may damage textiles beyond recovery. Some textile dyes are "loose" (red being the main culprit), and will shed dye during solvent immersion. These will not be included in a load along with lighter colored textiles to avoid color transfer. The solvent used must be distilled to remove impurities that may transfer to clothing. Garments are checked for dry-cleaning compatibility, including fasteners. Many decorative fasteners either are not dry cleaning solvent proof or will not withstand the mechanical action of cleaning. These will be removed and restitched after the cleaning, or protected with a small padded protector. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm³ at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under [[normal force]] during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.
A typical wash cycle lasts for 8-15 minutes depending on the type of garments and amount of soiling. During the first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils dissolve into the perchloroethylene and loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes approximately ten to twelve minutes after the loose soil has come off to remove the ground-in insoluble soil from garments. Machines using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash cycle of at least 25 minutes because of the much slower rate of solvation of solvent-soluble soils. A dry-cleaning surfactant "soap" may also be added.
At the end of the wash cycle, the machine starts a rinse cycle, and the garment load is rinsed with fresh distilled solvent from the pure solvent tank. This pure solvent rinse prevents discoloration caused by soil particles being absorbed back onto the garment surface from the "dirty" working solvent.
After the rinse cycle the machine begins the extraction process, which recovers dry-cleaning solvent for reuse. Modern machines recover approximately 99.99% of the solvent employed.
The extraction cycle begins by draining the solvent from the washing chamber and accelerating the basket to 350 to 450 rpm, causing much of the solvent to spin free of the fabric. When no more solvent can be spun out, the machine starts the drying cycle.
During the drying cycle, the garments are tumbled in a stream of warm air (63°C/145°F) that circulates through the basket, evaporating any traces of solvent left after the spin cycle. The air temperature is controlled to prevent heat damage to the garments. The exhausted warm air from the machine then passes through a chiller unit, where solvent vapors are condensed and returned to the distilled solvent tank. Modern dry cleaning machines use a closed-loop system where the chilled air is reheated and recirculated. This results in high solvent recovery rates and reduced air pollution. In the early days of dry cleaning, large amounts of perchlorethylene were vented to the atmosphere, because it was regarded as cheap and believed to be harmless.
After the drying cycle is complete, a deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the garments and removes the last traces of solvent, by circulating cool outside air over the garments and then through a vapor recovery filter made from activated carbon and polymer resins. After the aeration cycle, the garments are clean and ready for pressing/finishing.
== Solvent processing ==
Working solvent from the washing chamber passes through several [[filtration]] steps before it is returned to the washing chamber. The first step is a button trap which prevents small objects such as lint, fasteners, buttons, and coins from entering the solvent pump.
Next the solvent passes through a filter which removes [[lint]] and insoluble suspended soils from the solvent. Most filters use an ultra fine mesh to support a thin layer of filter powder (made from [[diatomaceous earth]] and activated [[clay]]s). Some machines use powderless filters which are capable of removing soil particles greater than 30 [[micrometre|micrometer]]s.
Over time a thin layer of [[filter cake]] (called '''muck''') accumulates on the lint filter. The muck is removed regularly (commonly once per day) and then processed to recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many machines use "spin disc filters" which remove the muck from the filter by centrifugal force while it is back washed with solvent.
After the lint filter, the solvent passes through an [[Absorption|absorptive]] cartridge filter. This filter is made from activated clays and charcoal and removes fine insoluble soil and non-volatile residues, along with dyes from the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes through a polishing filter which removes any soil not previously removed. The clean solvent is then returned to the working solvent tank.
To enhance cleaning power, small amounts of [[detergent]] (0.5%-1.5%) are added to the working solvent and are essential to its functionality. These detergents help dissolve [[Hydrophile|hydrophilic]] soils and keep soil from redepositing on garments. Depending on the machine's design, either an anionic or cationic detergent is used.
Since the solvent recovery is less than 100%, and because dry-cleaning doesn't remove water-based stains well, entrepreneurs have developed the [[wet cleaning]] process, which is essentially cold-water washing and air drying, using a computer-controlled washer and dryer. Wet cleaning is generally regarded as being in its infancy, although low-tech versions of it have been used for centuries.
== Dry-cleaning wastes ==
=== Cooked muck ===
Cooked Powder Residue — the waste material generated by cooking down or distilling muck. Cooked powder residue is a [[hazardous waste]] and will contain solvent, powdered filter material (diatomite), carbon, non-volatile residues, lint, dyes, grease, soils and water. This material should then be disposed of in accordance with local law.
=== Sludge ===
The waste sludge or solid residue from the still contains solvent, water, soils, carbon and other non-volatile residues. Still bottoms from chlorinated solvent dry cleaning operations are hazardous wastes.
==Health and Safety==
Perc is classified as a probable human [[carcinogen]] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]], and exposure carries risks to both those who work in the dry cleaning industry as well as consumers. Perc exposure has been shown to cause liver cancer in mice and kidney cancer in male rats.<ref name=ohio>Ohio Bureau of Health. [http://www.odh.ohio.gov/ASSETS/58B58A9ACB3349DD82C25A36531BA165/PCE.pdf “Tetrachloroethylene (PCE).”] Retrieved on 2007-08-15.</ref> According to California's [[South Coast Air Quality Management District]](SCAQMD), people who live near dry cleaners have a higher risk of cancer than those who live near oil refineries or power plants.<ref name=wet>Immediato, Linda. [http://www.laweekly.com/la-vida/the-shop/wet-is-the-new-dry/15406/ "Wet is the New Dry."] LA Weekly: La Vida. 2007-01-17. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.</ref>
PERC can enter the body through respiratory and dermal exposure. Symptoms associated with exposure include: impaired memory, confusion, dizziness, headache, drowsiness, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Repeated dermal exposure may cause dermatitis.<ref>NIOSH Hazard Controls: Control of Exposure to Perchloroethylene in Commercial Drycleaning (Substitution) United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-155 (1998) [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hc17.html]</ref>
== Environment ==
Perc is classified as a hazardous air contaminant by the [[EPA]] and must be handled as a [[hazardous waste]]. To prevent it from getting into drinking water, dry cleaners that use perc must take special precautions against site contamination. Landlords are becoming increasingly reluctant to allow dry cleaners to operate in their buildings. When released into the air, perc can contribute to [[smog]] when it reacts with other volatile organic carbon substances.<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. [http://www.epa.gov/chemfact/f_perchl.txt “Chemicals in the Environment: Perchloroethylene.”] 1994-08. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.</ref> California declared perchloroethylene a toxic chemical in 1991, and its use will become illegal in that state in 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/16816627 | title = California bans dry cleaning chemical | publisher = [[msnbc.com]] | date = 2007-01-25}}</ref>
== Solvents used ==
=== Modern ===
* '''[[Perchloroethylene]]''' — In use since the 1940s, perc is the most common solvent, the "standard" for cleaning performance, and most aggressive cleaner. It can cause color bleeding/loss, especially at higher temperatures, and may destroy special trims, buttons, and beads on some garments. Better for oil-based stains (which account for about 10% of stains) than more common water-soluble stains (coffee, wine, blood, etc). Known for leaving a characteristic chemical smell on garments. Nonflammable.
*'''[[Hydrocarbon]]''' — This is most like standard dry cleaning, but the processes use hydrocarbon solvents such as [[Exxon-Mobil]]’s DF-2000 or [[Chevron Phillips]]' EcoSolv. These [[petroleum]]-based solvents are less aggressive than perc and require a longer cleaning cycle. While flammable, these solvents do not present a high risk of fire or explosion when used properly. Hydrocarbon also contains [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs) that contribute to smog.<ref name=wet/>
* '''Liquid [[silicone]]'''(decamethylcyclopentasiloxane or D5) — gentler on garments than Perc and does not cause color loss. Requires a license be obtained to utilize the property of [[GreenEarth Cleaning]]. Degrades within days in the environment to [[sio2|silica]] and trace amounts of water and CO<sub>2</sub>. Produces nontoxic, nonhazardous waste. Toxicity tests by Dow Corning shows the solvent to increase the incidence of tumors in female rats (no effects were seen in male rats), but further research concluded that the effects observed in rats were not relevant to humans because the biological pathway that results in tumor formation is unique to rats.<ref>Silicones Environmental, Health and Safety Council. [http://www.greenearthcleaning.com/images/SEHSCFactSheet1204.jpg “Fact Sheet: D5 in Dry Cleaning.”] December 2004. Accessed 2007-07-30.</ref>(170.6 °F/77 °C flash point)
* '''[[Supercritical carbon dioxide|Liquid CO<sub>2</sub>]]''' — [[Consumer Reports]] rated this method superior to conventional methods, but the Drycleaning and Laundry Institute commented on its "fairly low cleaning ability" in a 2007 report.<ref>Drycleaning and Laundry Institute. "The DLI White Paper: Key Information on Industry Solvents." The Western Cleaner & Launderer, August 2007.</ref> Machinery is expensive—up to $90,000 more than a perc machine, making affordability difficult for small businesses. Most cleaners with these machines keep traditional machines on-site for the heavier soiled textiles. CO<sub>2</sub> cleaning is also used for fire- and water-damage restoration due to its effectiveness in removing toxic residues, soot and associated odors of fire.
* '''Modified hydrocarbon blends''' (Pure Dry)
* '''[[Glycol]] [[ether]]s''' (dipropylene glycol tertiary-butyl ether) ([[Rynex]]) — not as effective as perchloroethylene.
*'''[[Wet cleaning]]''' — Not a solvent, but a system that uses water and [[biodegradable]] soap. Computer-controlled dryers and stretching machines ensure that the fabric retains its natural size and shape. Wet cleaning is claimed to clean a majority of "dry clean only" garments safely, including leather, suede, most tailored woolens, silk and [[rayon]]. (Neckties seem to be the one exception.) Most perc cleaners use wet cleaning on some garments, but there are only about 20 exclusive wetcleaners in the U.S.
=== Historical ===
* [[Stoddard solvent]] — Very flammable and explosive, 100°F/38°C [[flash point]].
* [[Carbon tetrachloride]] — Toxic and corrosive
* [[1,1,1-Trichloroethane|Trichloroethane]] — Overly aggressive and harsh
* [[Valclene 113]] Freon-113 — Ozone destroying [[Chlorofluorocarbon|CFC]]
== References ==
<references/>
== See also ==
*[[List of environment topics]]
*[[Fabric Restoration]]
*[[GreenEarth Cleaning]]
*[[Pearson v. Chung]] The Pearson v. Chung case
== External links ==
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/dry-cleaning.htm How stuff works article] on how dry cleaning works.
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/home-dry-cleaning.htm How stuff works article] on how home dry cleaning works.
* [http://www.stretcher.com/stories/970303a.cfm Dry clean only?] Article about exceptions to "dry clean only" labels.
* [http://www.grinningplanet.com/2004/02-10/dry-cleaning-alternatives-eco.htm Dry cleaning chemicals] that are more environment friendly.
*[http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/tet-ethy.html Hazard Summary] provided by the U.S. EPA.
* [http://www.ph.ucla.edu/ehs/student%20hazards/perchloroethylene.pdf Perchloroethylene] on PERC and environmental issues.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/dryclean/ NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Drycleaning]
*[http://www.slatenyc.com] Web-based eco-luxury laundry and dry cleaning provider.
[[Category:Laundry]]
[[Category:Garment industry]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]]
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