Early Islamic philosophy 171177 225776014 2008-07-15T10:15:08Z Jagged 85 468111 /* Cosmology */ '''Early [[Islamic philosophy]]''' or '''classical Islamic philosophy''' is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the [[Islamic calendar]] (early 9th century [[Common Era|CE]]) and lasting until the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE). The period is known as the [[Islamic Golden Age]], and the achievements of this period had a crucial influence in the development of modern [[philosophy]] and [[science]]. This period starts with [[al-Kindi]] in the 9th century and ends with [[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd) at the end of 12th century. The death of Averroes effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the ''[[Peripatetic school|Peripatetic Arabic School]]'', and philosophical activity declined significantly in Western [[Muslim world|Islamic countries]], namely in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] and [[North Africa]], though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular [[History of Iran|Persia]] and [[Islam in India|India]] where several schools of philosophy continued to flourish: [[Avicennism]], [[Illuminationist philosophy]], [[Sufi philosophy|Mystical philosophy]], and [[Transcendent theosophy]]. Some of the significant achievements of early [[List of Muslim philosophers|Muslim philosophers]] included the development of a strict [[scientific citation|science of citation]], the [[isnad]] or "backing"; the development of a [[scientific method|method of open inquiry]] to disprove claims, the [[ijtihad]], which could be generally applied to many types of questions (although which to apply it to is an ethical question); the willingness to both accept and challenge authority within the same process; recognition that science and philosophy are both subordinate to morality, and that moral choices are prior to any investigation or concern with either; the separation of [[theology]] ([[kalam]]) and [[law]] ([[shariah]]) during the early [[Abbasid]] period, a precursor to [[secularism]];<ref>Kevin Staley (1989). "Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''50''' (3), p. 355-370.</ref> the distinction between [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], marking the beginning of [[secularism|secular thought]]; the beginning of a [[peer review]] process; early ideas on [[evolution]]; the beginnings of the [[scientific method]], an important contribution to the [[philosophy of science]]; the first forms of non-[[Aristotelian logic]] and the introduction of [[Temporal logic|temporal]] [[modal logic]] and [[inductive logic]]; the beginning of [[social philosophy]], including the formulation of theories on [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]]; the beginning of the [[philosophy of history]]; the development of the [[philosophical novel]] and the concepts of [[empiricism]] and [[tabula rasa]]; and distinguishing between [[essence]] and [[existence]]. [[Thomas Aquinas]] knew of at least some of the [[Mutazilite]] work, particularly Avicennism and [[Averroism]], and the [[Renaissance]] and the use of [[empirical method]]s were inspired at least in part by Arabic works [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin]] during the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], and taken during the [[Reconquista]] in [[1492]]. Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences, branches, schools, and fields, as described below. ==Origin== ===Muhammad === The life of [[Muhammad]] or [[sira]] which generated both the [[Qur'an]] (revelation) and [[hadith]] (his daily utterances and discourses on social and legal matters), during which philosophy was defined by Muslims as consisting in acceptance or rejection of his message. Together the sira and hadith constitute the [[sunnah]] and are validated by [[isnad]] ("backing") to determine the likely truth of the report of any given saying of Muhammad. Key figures are [[Imam Jaffar as-Sadegh (AS)]], [[Imam Bukhari]], [[Imam Muslim]], [[Al-Tirmidhi]], [[Ibn Majah]], [[Abu Dawud]] and [[Al-Nasa'i]]. Each sifted through literally millions of hadith to accept a list of under 10,000. This work, which was not completed until the [[10th century]], began shortly after [[The Farewell Sermon]] in [[631]], after which Muhammad could not mediate disputes. After his death [[Abu Bakr]] began to collect all fragments of his sayings. ==Branches== === Kalam === {{main|Kalam}} With [[Kalam]], questions about the [[sira]] and [[hadith]], as well as science ([[Islamic science]]) and law ([[fiqh]] and [[sharia]]), began to be investigated beyond the scope of Muhammad's beliefs. This period is characterized by emergence of [[ijtihad]] and the first [[fiqh]]. As the Sunnah became published and accepted, philosophy separate from [[Muslim theology]] was discouraged due to a lack of participants. During this period, traditions similar to [[Socratic method]] began to evolve, but philosophy remained subordinate to religion. "Kalam" generally referred to the Islamic tradition of seeking [[Theology|theological]] principles through [[dialectic]]. Independent minds exploiting the methods of [[ijtihad]] sought to investigate the doctrines of the [[Qur'an]], which until then had been accepted in faith on the authority of divine revelation. One of first debates was that between partisan of the ''Qadar'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''qadara'', to have power), who affirmed [[free will]], and the ''Jabarites'' (jabar, force, constraint), who maintained the belief in [[fatalism]]. At the second century of the [[Hijri year|Hijra]], a new movement arose in the theological school of [[Basra]], [[Iraq]]. A pupil, [[Wasil ibn Ata]], who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to then orthodox Islamic tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites. This new school was called ''[[Mutazilite]]'' (from i'tazala, to separate oneself, to dissent). Its principal dogmas were three: #God is an absolute unity, and no attribute can be ascribed to Him. #Man is a free agent. It is on account of these two principles that the Mu'tazilities designate themselves the "Partisans of Justice and Unity". #All knowledge necessary for the [[salvation]] of man emanates from his reason; humans could acquire knowledge before, as well as after, Revelation, by the sole light of reason. This fact makes knowledge obligatory upon all men, at all times, and in all places. The Mutazilities, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in [[philosophy]], and are one of the first to pursue a [[rational theology]] called ''Ilm-al-[[Kalam]]'' ([[Scholasticism|Scholastic theology]]); those professing it were called ''Mutakallamin''. This appellation became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. The first Mutakallamin had to debate both the orthodox and the non-[[Muslims]], and they may be described as occupying the middle ground between those two parties. But subsequent generations were to large extent critical towards the Mutazilite school, especially after formation of the [[Asharite]] concepts. ===Falsafa=== From the [[9th century]] onwards, owing to [[Caliph]] [[al-Ma'mun]] and his successor, [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]] were introduced among the [[Persians]] and [[Arab]]s, and the [[Peripatetic]] and [[Neoplatonic]] schools began to find able representatives among them; such were [[al-Kindi]], [[al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), and [[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. During the [[Abbasid caliphate]] a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them [[heterodox]] Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hellenistic, [[Indian philosophy|Indian]] and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the [[Christian]] [[Western world|West]]. They contributed to making [[Aristotle]] known in Christian [[Europe]]. Three speculative thinkers, the two [[Persians]] [[al-Farabi]] and [[Avicenna]] and the [[Arab]] [[al-Kindi]], combined [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]] with other ideas introduced through Islam. They were considered by many as highly unorthodox and a few even described them as non-Islamic philosophers. From [[Spain]] Arabic philosophic literature was translated into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Latin]], contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. The philosophers [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]] (a [[Jew]] born in [[Al Andalus|Muslim Spain]]) and [[Ibn Khaldun]] (born in modern-day [[Tunisia]]), the father of [[sociology]] and [[historiography]], were also important philosophers, though the latter did not identify himself as a ''falsafa'', but rather a ''kalam'' author. ===Some differences between ''Kalam'' and ''Falsafa''=== Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the [[Creator God|Creator]] of the world. To assert that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to denying [[prophecy]]. One other point shocked the faith of the Mutakallamin &mdash; the theory of intellect. The [[Peripatetics]] taught that the human [[soul]] was only an aptitude &mdash; a faculty capable of attaining every variety of passive perfection &mdash; and that through information and virtue it became qualified for union with the active intellect, which latter emanates from God. To admit this theory would be to deny the [[immortality]] of the soul. Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter. For, indeed, if it be supposed that [[God]] commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to [[Time]], and claimed that just as [[Space]] is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique, [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], and [[Omniscience|omniscient]]. ===Main protagonists of Falsafa and their critics=== The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-[[Ghazali]] (1005-1111) among the Persians, and to [[Judah ha-Levi]] (1140) among the Jews. It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by [[Ghazali]] in his work, "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (The Destruction of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace) and [[Ibn Rushd]] ([[Averroes]]), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy. Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Ghazali]] found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the [[Kalam (islamic term)|Kalam]] give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in [[Judah ha-Levi]]'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (or Ibn Roshd or Averroës), the contemporary of [[Maimonides]], closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of [[Ibn Bajjah]] and [[Ibn Tufail]], who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world&mdash;hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the [[Averroism|Averroist]] school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern [[secularism]].<ref name=Messeri/><ref name=Najjar/> Ibn Rushd is thus regarded as the founding father of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].<ref name=Fakhry/> But while [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]], and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ''ex nihilo''" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared&mdash;in order to make concessions to the orthodox&mdash; but also a necessity. Driven from the Islamic schools, Islamic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men&mdash;such as the [[Ibn Tibbon]]s, [[Narboni]], [[Gersonides]]&mdash;joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil [[Joseph ben Judah]], spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd.<ref>[[Henry Corbin]], ''History of Islamic Philosophy''.</ref> ===Judeo-Islamic philosophy=== {{main|Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)}} The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of [[Saadia Gaon]] ([[892]]-[[942]]), ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth|Emunot ve-Deot]]'', "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ''[[ex nihilo]]'', just as the [[Bible]] attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (''sifat al-dhatia'') can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (''sifat-al-fi'aliya''). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" '''arad'' (compare [[Guide for the Perplexed]] i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim Peripatetics stopped short in their respective Aristotelianism whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion. ==Schools== [[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|left|[[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), the founder of [[Avicennism]].]] ===Avicennism=== {{main|Avicennism}} {{Avicenna}} In the [[Islamic Golden Age]], due to [[Avicenna]]'s (Ibn Sina's) successful reconciliation between [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Neoplatonism]] along with [[Kalam]], Avicennism eventually became the leading school of [[Islamic philosophy]] by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then, and several scholars in the 12th century commented on his strong influence at the time:<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> {{quote|"People nowadays [believe] that truth is whatever [Ibn Sina] says, that it is inconceivable for him to err, and that whoever contradicts him in anything he says cannot be rational."}} Avicennism was also infuential in [[medieval Europe]], particularly his doctrines on the nature of the [[soul]] and his [[existence]]-[[essence]] distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in [[Scholasticism|scholastic Europe]]. This was particularly the case in [[Paris]], where Avicennism was later [[proscribed]] in 1210. Nevertheless, his [[psychology]] and theory of knowledge influenced [[William of Auvergne]] and [[Albertus Magnus]], and his [[metaphysics]] had an impact on the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]].<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037)]</ref> [[Image:AverroesColor.jpg|thumb|right|[[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd), the founder of [[Averroism]].]] ===Averroism=== {{main|Averroism}} [[Averroes]] (Ibn Rushd) is most famous for his commentaries on [[Aristotle]]'s works and for writing ''[[The Incoherence of the Incoherence]]'' in which he defended the ''falasifa'' against [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]''. While he had very little influence in the Islamic world, which was then dominated by Avicennian philosophy and [[Ash'ari]] theology, Averroism became very infuential in [[medieval Europe]], especially among the [[Scholastics]]. Averroism eventually led to the development of modern [[secularism]],<ref name=Messeri>Abdel Wahab El Messeri. [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm Episode 21: Ibn Rushd], ''Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask'', ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref><ref name=Najjar>Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13 The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt], ''Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)''.</ref> for which Ibn Rushd is considered as the founding father of secular thought in [[Western Europe]].<ref name=Fakhry>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.</ref> {{-}} ==Ethics== {{main|Islamic ethics}} ===Environmental philosophy=== Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of [[natural capital]], i.e. producing land. Traditions of [[haram]] and [[hima]] and early [[urban planning]] were expressions of strong social obligations to stay within [[carrying capacity]] and to preserve the [[natural environment]] as an obligation of [[khalifa]] or "stewardship".<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129, [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref> [[Muhammad]] is considered a pioneer of [[environmentalism]] for his teachings on [[environmental preservation]]. His [[hadith]]s on [[agriculture]] and [[environmental philosophy]] were compiled in the "Book of Agriculture" of the ''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'', which included the following saying:<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129 [119-129], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref> {{quote|"There is none amongst the believers who plants a tree, or sows a seed, and then a bird, or a person, or an animal eats thereof, but it is regarded as having given a charitable gift [for which there is great recompense]."<ref>''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'' 3:513</ref>}} Several such statements concerning the environment are also found in the [[Qur'an]], such as the following:<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129 [111-119], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref> {{quote|"And there is no animal in the earth nor bird that flies with its two wings, but that they are communities like yourselves."<ref>{{cite quran|6|38}}</ref>}} The earliest known treatises dealing with [[environmentalism]] and [[environmental science]], especially [[pollution]], were [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical treatises]] written by [[al-Kindi]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], Ibn Jumay, [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as [[air pollution]], [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[municipal solid waste]] mishandling, and [[environmental impact assessment]]s of certain localities.<ref>L. Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", ''Environment and History'' '''8''' (4), pp. 475-488.</ref> [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]], [[al-Andalus]] also had the first [[waste container]]s and [[waste disposal]] facilities for [[litter]] collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), ''History of the Moorish Empire in Europe'', 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), ''The Mind of the Middle Ages'', Third edition revised, [[University of Chicago Press]], pp 148-50. <br> ([[cf.]] [http://www.1001inventions.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=main.viewSection&intSectionID=441 References], 1001 Inventions)</ref> ===Medical ethics=== {{main|Bimaristan}} The [[ethical]] standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the ''Adab al-Tabib'' (''Conduct of a Physician''), the first treatist dedicated to [[medical ethics]]. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including:<ref name=Ethics>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=570 Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> * What the [[physician]] must avoid and beware of * The manners of [[visitor]]s * The care of [[Remedy|remedies]] by the physician * The [[dignity]] of the medical [[profession]] * The [[examination]] of physicians * The removal of corruption among physicians ===Humanism=== Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued [[humanistic]], [[Rationalism|rational]] and scientific [[discourse]]s in their search for [[knowledge]], meaning and [[values]]. A wide range of Islamic writings on love [[poetry]], [[history]] and [[philosophical theology]] show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of [[individualism]], occasional [[secularism]], [[skepticism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref> Another reason the Islamic world flourished during the Middle Ages was an early emphasis on [[freedom of speech]], as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph [[al-Ma'mun]]) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to [[Religious conversion|convert]] through [[reason]]:<ref>{{citation|first=I. A.|last=Ahmad|contribution=The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study|title=“Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity”|Publisher=[[Al-Akhawayn University]]|date=June 3, 2002|url=http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf |accessdate=2008-01-31}}</ref> {{quote|"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion, and that arbitrator shall be [[Reason]], whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" ([[Al-Baqara|Qur'an 2]]:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Peace be with you and the blessings of God!"}} ==Evolution== Early [[Islamic science|Muslim scientists]] and philosophers developed theories on [[evolution]], and the [[transmutation of species]], which were widely taught in medieval [[Madrasah|Islamic schools]]. [[John William Draper]], a contemporary of [[Charles Darwin]], wrote the following on what he called the "[[Mohammedan]] theory of evolution" in 1878:<ref>[[John William Draper]] (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 237. ISBN 1603030964.</ref> {{quote|"Sometimes, not without surprise, we meet with ideas which we flatter ourselves have originated in our own times. Thus our modern doctrines of evolution and development were taught in their schools. In fact, they carried them much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to [[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or [[mineral]] things. The fundamental principle of [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemy]] was the natural process of development of [[metal]]line bodies."<ref name=Draper>[[John William Draper]] (1878). ''History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science'', p. 154-155. ISBN 1603030964.</ref>}} ===Al-Jahiz and the struggle for existence=== The [[Mu'tazili]] scientist and philosopher [[al-Jahiz]] (c. 776-869) was the first of the Muslim biologists and philosophers to develop an early theory of [[evolution]]. He speculated on the influence of the environment on [[animal]]s, considered the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and first described the [[The Origin of Species#Struggle for existence, and natural selection|struggle for existence]], a precursor to [[natural selection]].<ref>Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''84''' (1), p. 71-123.</ref><ref>Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", ''The Islamic Quarterly''. [[London]].</ref> Al-Jahiz wrote the following on the struggle for existence in his work, ''Book of Animals'': {{quote|"Animals engage in a struggle for [[existence]]; for [[Natural resource|resources]], to avoid being eaten and to [[breed]]. Environmental factors influence [[organism]]s to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. Animals that survive to breed can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring."<ref>Gary Dargan, [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/encounter/stories/2006/1656361.htm Intelligent Design], ''Encounter'', [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]].</ref>}} ===Ibn Miskawayh and the Brethren of Purity=== [[Ibn Miskawayh]]'s ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and the [[Brethren of Purity]]'s ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'' (''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'') developed theories on evolution that later had an influence on [[Charles Darwin]] and his inception of [[Darwinism]]. [[Muhammad Hamidullah]] describes their evolutionary ideas as follows: {{quote|"[These books] state that [[God]] first created [[matter]] and invested it with [[energy]] for development. Matter, therefore, adopted the form of [[vapour]] which assumed the shape of [[water]] in due time. The next stage of development was [[mineral]] life. Different kinds of [[Rock (geology)|stone]]s developed in course of time. Their highest form being mirjan ([[coral]]). It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a [[tree]]. After mineral life evolves [[vegetation]]. The evolution of vegetation culminates with a [[tree]] which bears the qualities of an animal. This is the [[Date Palm|date-palm]]. It has [[male]] and [[female]] genders. It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an [[ape]]. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what Ibn Maskawayh states and this is precisely what is written in the ''Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa''. The Muslim thinkers state that ape then evolved into a lower kind of a [[barbarian]] [[man]]. He then became a superior [[human]] being. Man becomes a [[saint]], a [[prophet]]. He evolves into a higher stage and becomes an [[angel]]. The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him."<ref name=Hamidullah>[[Muhammad Hamidullah]] and Afzal Iqbal (1993), ''The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity'', p. 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.</ref>}} Eloise Hart also describes the evolutionary thought in the ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' as follows: {{quote|"Another section describes the creation of worlds and the evolution of life in details that would have impressed Darwin. It explains how manifestation unfolds through successive layers, or stratified planes down to the mineral kingdom. Where, in this lowest kingdom, the most developed mineral entities live within its highest strata and blend imperceptibly into the next higher or vegetable kingdom. Likewise the vegetable kingdom contacts, at its highest level, the animal kingdom, whose culmination is man. The most evolved men contact higher spheres and, standing between the angelic and animal orders, serve on earth as vicegerents of God."<ref name=Hart>Eloise Hart, ''Pages of Medieval Mideastern History''. ([[cf.]] Isma'ili, Yezidi, Sufi, [http://www.ismaili.net/mirrors/Ikhwan_04/brotherpur.html The Brethren Of Purity], Ismaili Heritage Society)</ref>}} [[English language|English]] translations of the ''Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity'' were available from 1812,<ref>"Ikhwan as-Safa and their Rasa'il: A Critical Review of a Century and a Half of Research", by A. L. Tibawi, as published in volume 2 of ''The Islamic Quarterly'' in 1955; pgs. 28-46</ref> while [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[manuscript]]s of the ''al-Fawz al-Asghar'' and ''The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa'' were also available at the [[University of Cambridge]] by the 19th century. These works likely had an influence on 19th century evolutionists, and possibly [[Charles Darwin]], who may have been a student of Arabic.<ref name=Hamidullah/><ref name=Hart/> ===Al-Khazini and the transmutation of species=== In the 12th century, [[al-Khazini]] wrote the following on how evolution in [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemy]] and [[biology]] were perceived by [[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] and common people in the Islamic world at the time: {{quote|"When common people hear from natural philosophers that [[gold]] is a body which has attained to perfection of maturity, to the goal of completeness, they firmly believe that it is something which has gradually come to that perfection by passing through the forms of all other metallic bodies, so that its gold nature was originally [[lead]], afterward it became [[tin]], then [[brass]], then [[silver]], and finally reached the development of [[gold]]; not knowing that the [[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]] mean, in saying this, only something like what they mean when they speak of [[man]], and attribute to him a completeness and equilibrium in nature and constitution - not that man was once a [[cattle|bull]], and was changed into an [[ass]], and afterward into a [[horse]], and after that into an [[ape]], and finally became a man."<ref name=Draper/>}} ===Other supporters=== The [[Ash'ari]] [[polymath]] [[Ibn al-Haytham]] later wrote a book in which he argued for [[evolutionism]] (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, including the polymaths [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], discussed and developed these ideas. Translated into [[Latin]], these works began to appear in the West after the [[Renaissance]] and may have had an impact on [[Western philosophy]] and [[science]]. ==Logic== {{main|Logic in Islamic philosophy}} In early Islamic philosophy, [[logic]] played an important role. [[Islamic law]] placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in [[Kalam]], but this approach was later displaced by ideas from [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy]] with the rise of the [[Mu'tazili]] philosophers, who highly valued [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Organon]]''. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the ''Organon'' by [[Averroes]]. The works of [[al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]], [[al-Ghazali]] and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the [[Renaissance]]. According to the [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: {{quote|"For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of [[inference]] and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and even of [[epistemology]] and [[metaphysics]]. Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of [[terms]], [[proposition]]s and [[syllogism]]s as formulated in Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In the spirit of Aristotle, they considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by most of the major Islamic Aristotelians."}} Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic. [[Avicenna]]'s [[system of logic]] was responsible for the introduction of [[hypothetical syllogism]], [[Temporal logic|temporal]] [[modal logic]] and [[Inductive reasoning|inductive logic]]. Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict [[scientific citation|science of citation]], the [[isnad]] or "backing", and the development of a [[scientific method|scientific method of open inquiry]] to disprove claims, the [[ijtihad]], which could be generally applied to many types of questions. ===Logic in Islamic law and theology=== Early forms of [[Analogy|analogical reasoning]], [[inductive reasoning]] and categorical [[syllogism]] were introduced in [[Fiqh]] (Islamic jurisprudence), [[Sharia]] (Islamic law) and [[Kalam]] (Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of ''[[Qiyas]]'', before the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. Later during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], there was a logical [[debate]] among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term ''Qiyas'' refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Some Islamic scholars argued that ''Qiyas'' refers to inductive reasoning, which [[Ibn Hazm]] (994-1064) disagreed with, arguing that ''Qiyas'' does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a [[Reality|real]] sense and analogical reasoning in a [[metaphor]]ical sense. On the other hand, [[al-Ghazali]] (1058-1111) (and in modern times, [[Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi]]) argued that ''Qiyas'' refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term ''Qiyas'' refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense.<ref>Wael B. Hallaq (1993), ''Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians'', p. 48. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198240430.</ref> ===Aristotelian logic=== The first original Arabic writings on logic were produced by [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by [[al-Farabi]] (Alfarabi) (873–950), who discussed the topics of future [[contingent]]s, the [[number]] and [[relation]] of the [[Category|categories]], the relation between [[logic]] and [[grammar]], and non-Aristotelian forms of [[inference]]. He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "[[logical argument|proof]]."<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 History of logic: Arabic logic], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> [[Averroes]] (1126–98) was the last major logician from [[al-Andalus]], who wrote the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic. ===Avicennian logic=== [[Avicenna]] (980-1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world.<ref>I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", ''A history of formal logic'', p. 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, [[Indiana University Press]]. ([[cf.]] [http://www.formalontology.it/islamic-philosophy.htm Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology])</ref> The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by [[Avicenna]] (980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of [[definition]] and [[classification]] and the [[quantification]] of the [[predicate]]s of categorical [[proposition]]s, and developed an original theory on "[[Temporal logic|temporal]] [[Modal logic|modal]]" syllogism. Its premises included [[modifier]]s such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time". While [[Avicenna]] (980-1037) often relied on [[deductive reasoning]] in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. Ibn Sina contributed inventively to the development of [[inductive reasoning|inductive logic]], which he used to pioneer the idea of a [[syndrome]]. In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the [[Mill's Methods|methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation]] which are critical to inductive logic and the [[scientific method]].<ref name=Goodman>Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), ''Islamic Humanism'', p. 155, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0195135806.</ref> [[Ibn Hazm]] (994-1064) wrote the ''Scope of Logic'', in which he stressed on the importance of [[sense]] [[perception]] as a source of knowledge.<ref name=Herald>[http://www.islamherald.com/asp/explore/science/science_muslim_scientists.asp Science and Muslim Scientists], Islam Herald.</ref> [[Al-Ghazali]] (Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in [[theology]], making use of Avicennian logic in [[Kalam]].<ref name=Britannica/> Despite the logical sophistication of [[al-Ghazali]], the rise of the [[Ash'ari]] school in the from the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as [[History of Iran|Persia]] and the [[Levant]]. [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (b. 1149) criticised Aristotle's "[[Syllogism|first figure]]" and developed a form of [[Inductive reasoning|inductive logic]], foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806-1873). Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the [[Illuminationist philosophy|Illuminationist school]], founded by [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]] (1155-1191), who developed the idea of "decisive [[necessity]]", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation.<ref name=Herald/> Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] (1263-1328), who wrote the ''ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin'' (''Refutation of Greek Logicians''), in which he gave a [[proof]] for [[induction]] being the only true form of [[argument]], which had an important influence on the development of the [[scientific method]] of [[observation]] and [[experiment]]ation.<ref name=Herald/> ==Metaphysics== ===Cosmological and ontological arguments=== [[Avicenna]]'s proof for the [[existence of God]] was the first [[ontological argument]], which he proposed in the ''Metaphysics'' section of ''[[The Book of Healing]]''.<ref name=Johnson>Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence", ''The Muslim World'' '''74''' (3-4), 161–171.</ref><ref name=Morewedge>{{citation|last=Morewedge|first=P.|title=Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument|journal=Monist|volume=54|pages=234-49}}</ref> This was the first attempt at using the method of [[a priori (philosophy)|a priori proof]], which utilizes [[intuition]] and [[reason]] alone. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a [[cosmological argument]] and an ontological argument. "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent."<ref>{{citation|first=Toby|last=Mayer|title=Ibn Sina’s ‘Burhan Al-Siddiqin’|year=2001|journal=Journal of Islamic Studies|publisher=[[Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies]], Oxford Journals, [[Oxford University Press]]|volume=12|issue=1|pages=18-39}}</ref> ===Distinction between essence and existence=== Islamic philosophy, imbued as it is with [[Kalam|Islamic theology]], distinguishes more clearly than [[Aristotelianism]] the difference between [[essence]] and [[existence]]. Whereas existence is the domain of the [[contingent]] and the [[accident]]al, essence endures within a [[being]] beyond the accidental. This was first described by [[Avicenna]]'s works on [[metaphysics]], who was himself influenced by [[al-Farabi]]. Some ''orientalists'' (or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence (''wujud'') as an accident that happens to the essence (''mahiyya''). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of [[essentialism]] ''per se'', given that existence (''al-wujud'') when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the ''Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself'' (''wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi''), which is without description or definition, and particularly without quiddity or essence (''la mahiyya lahu''). Consequently, Avicenna's ontology is '[[Existentialism|existentialist]]' when accounting for being qua existence in terms of necessity (''wujub''), while it is '[[Essentialism|essentialist]]' in terms of thinking about being qua existence (''wujud'') in terms of contingency qua possibility (''imkan''; or ''mumkin al-wujud'': contingent being).<ref> For recent discussions of this question see: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism", ''The Review of Metaphysics'', Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753-778.</ref> Some argue that Avicenna anticipated [[Frege]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] in "holding that existence is an accident of accidents" and also anticipated [[Alexius Meinong]]'s "view about nonexistent objects."<ref>{{citation|first=Herrera Ibáñez|last=Alejandro|title=La distinción entre esencia y existencia en Avicena|journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía|volume=16|pages=183-195|year=1990 |url=http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna-biblio.htm|accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref> He also provided early arguments for "a '[[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary]] being' as cause of all other existents."<ref>{{citation|first=Hourani George|last=Fadlo|title=Ibn Sina on necessary and possible existence|journal=Philosophical Forum|volume=4|pages=74-86|year=1972 |url=http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna-biblio.htm|accessdate=2008-01-29}}</ref> The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to [[Avicenna]]<ref name=Irwin>{{citation|first=Jones|last=Irwin|title=Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam|date=Autumn 2002|journal=The Philosopher|volume=LXXXX|issue=2}}</ref> and his school of [[Avicennism]] as well as [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi]]<ref>{{Harv|Razavi|1997|p=129}}</ref> and his [[Illuminationist philosophy]]. The opposite idea of "[[Existence precedes essence]]" was thus developed in the works of [[Averroes]]<ref name=Irwin/> More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in [[ontology]] (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with [[Heidegger]]'s thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics.<ref> For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri, ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'' (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)</ref> ===Resurrection=== Ibn al-Nafis wrote the ''Theologus Autodidactus'' as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." The book presents rational arguments for bodily [[resurrection]] and the [[immortality]] of the human [[soul]], using both demonstrative [[reasoning]] and material from the hadith corpus as forms of [[evidence]]. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to [[Avicenna]]'s [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] argument on [[spirit]]ual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which was earlier criticized by [[al-Ghazali]].<ref>Fancy, p. 42 & 60</ref> ===Soul and spirit=== The [[Islamic medicine|Muslim physician]]-philosophers, [[Avicenna]] and [[Ibn al-Nafis]], developed their own theories on the [[soul]]. They both made a distinction between the soul and the [[spirit]], and in particular, the [[Avicenna#Avicennism|Avicennian]] doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]]. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul included the idea that the [[immortality]] of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final [[intellect]]. Avicenna generally supported [[Aristotle]]'s idea of the soul originating from the [[heart]], whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘[[I (pronoun)|I]]’."<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 209-210, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> ===Thought experiments=== :''Further information: [[Avicennism#Thought experiments on self-consciousness|Avicennism - Thought experiments on self-consciousness]]'' While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near [[Hamadhan]], [[Avicenna]] wrote his famous "Floating Man" [[thought experiment]] to demonstrate human [[self-awareness]] and the substantiality of the [[soul]]. He referred to the living human [[intelligence]], particularly the [[active intellect]], which he believed to be the [[Hypostatic abstraction|hypostasis]] by which God communicates [[truth]] to the human [[mind]] and imparts order and [[intelligibility]] to [[nature]]. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all [[sensation]]s, which includes no [[Sense|sensory]] contact with even their own bodies. He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have [[self-consciousness]]. He thus concludes that the idea of the [[Self (philosophy)|self]] is not logically dependent on any physical [[Object (philosophy)|thing]], and that the soul should not be seen in [[relative term]]s, but as a primary [[given]], a [[Substance theory|substance]].<ref name=Leaman>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] and [[Oliver Leaman]] (1996), ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 315, [[Routledge]], ISBN 0415131596.</ref> This argument was later refined and simplified by [[René Descartes]] in [[epistemic]] terms when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."<ref name=Leaman/> ===Truth=== In [[metaphysics]], [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) defined [[truth]] as: {{quote|"What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it."<ref>Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", ''Monthly Renaissance'' '''17''' (11).</ref>}} Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his ''[[Metaphysics]]'': {{quote|"The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it."<ref name=Aertsen>Jan A. Aertsen (1988), ''Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought'', p. 152. BRILL, ISBN 9004084517.</ref>}} In his ''Quodlibeta'', [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote a commentary on Avicenna's definition of truth in his ''Metaphysics'' and explained it as follows: {{quote|"The truth of each thing, as Avicenna says in his ''Metaphysica'', is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is."<ref name=Aertsen/>}} Early [[#Political philosophy|Islamic political philosophy]] emphasized an inexorable link between [[science]] and [[religion]] and emphsized the process of [[ijtihad]] to find truth. [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) [[reason]]ed that to discover the truth about [[nature]], it is necessary to eliminate human [[opinion]] and [[error]], and allow the [[universe]] to speak for itself.<ref name=Ezine/> In his ''Aporias against Ptolemy'', Ibn al-Haytham further wrote the following comments on truth: {{quote|"Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error..."<ref name=Sabra/>}} {{quote|"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency."<ref name=Sabra/>}} {{quote|"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the [[Wiktionary:effulgence|effulgence]] and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."<ref name=Plott/>}} ==Philosophy of science== {{see also|Islamic science}} ===Scientific method=== The pioneering development of the [[scientific method]] by the [[Arab]] [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) was an important contribution to the [[philosophy of science]]. In the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', his scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:<ref name=Ezine>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. ([[cf.]] Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", ''Ezine Articles''.)</ref> #[[Observation]] #Statement of [[problem]] #Formulation of [[hypothesis]] #Testing of hypothesis using [[experiment]]ation #Analysis of experimental [[result]]s #Interpretation of [[data]] and formulation of [[conclusion]] #[[Publication]] of findings In ''The Model of the Motions'', Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of [[Occam's razor]], where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the [[cosmology|cosmological]] hypotheses that cannot be observed from [[Earth]].<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7-55 [35-36]. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> In his ''Aporias against Ptolemy'', Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge: {{quote|"Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error..."<ref name=Sabra>[[A. I. Sabra|Sabra]] (2003). [http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/090351.html Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician], ''[[Harvard Magazine]]'', October-December 2003.</ref>}} He held that the criticism of existing theories — which dominated this book — holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge: {{quote|"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency."<ref name=Sabra/>}} Ibn al-Haytham attributed his [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]] and [[scientific skepticism]] to his [[Islam]]ic faith. He believed that [[human]] beings are inherently flawed and that only [[God]] is perfect. He [[reason]]ed that to discover the [[truth]] about [[nature]], it is necessary to eliminate human [[opinion]] and [[error]], and allow the [[universe]] to speak for itself.<ref name=Ezine/> In ''The Winding Motion'', Ibn al-Haytham further wrote that [[faith]] should only apply to [[prophets of Islam]] and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative [[science]]s: {{quote|"From the statements made by the noble [[Sheikh|Shaykh]], it is clear that he believes in [[Ptolemy]]'s words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation ([[taqlid]]); that is how [[Ulema|experts in the prophetic tradition]] have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences."<ref>Rashed (2007), p. 11.</ref>}} Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and [[knowledge]] as a way of leading him closer to God: {{quote|"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the [[Wiktionary:effulgence|effulgence]] and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge."<ref name=Plott>C. Plott (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism'', Pt. II, p. 465. ISBN 8120805518, [[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ.</ref>}} His contemporary [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] also introduced an early scientific method in nearly every field of [[inquiry]] he studied. For example, in his treatise on [[mineralogy]], ''Kitab al-Jamahir'' (''Book of Precious Stones''), he is "the most [[Exact science|exact]] of [[experiment]]al scientists", while in the introduction to his [[Indology|study of India]], he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops [[comparative sociology]] as a scientific method in the field.<ref name=Sardar>{{citation|first=Ziauddin|last=Sardar|author-link=Ziauddin Sardar|date=1998|contribution=Science in Islamic philosophy|title=Islamic Philosophy|publisher=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into [[mechanics]],<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, pp. 614-642 [642], [[Routledge]], London and New York</ref> the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to [[astronomical]] phenomena,<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> and a pioneer of [[experimental psychology]].<ref name=Iqbal>{{citation|first=Muhammad|last=Iqbal|author-link=Muhammad Iqbal|year=1930|title=[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]|chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture|url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> Unlike his contemporary [[Avicenna]]'s scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to [[experiment]]al work", al-Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries."<ref name=Sardar/> During his debate with Avicenna on [[natural philosophy]], al-Biruni made the first real distinction between a [[scientist]] and a [[philosopher]], referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist.<ref name=Dallal>{{citation|first=Ahmad|last=Dallal|year=2001-2002|title=The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam|publisher=From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the [[University of Chicago]] |url=http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/institute/sawyer/archive/islam/dallal.html |accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref> Al-Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both [[systematic error]]s and [[random errors]], such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, [[Qualitative research|analyzed qualitatively]], and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the [[constant]] sought", whether an [[arithmetic mean]] or a "reliable [[estimate]]."<ref>{{Harv|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p=89-90}}</ref> ===Experimental medicine=== [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern [[medicine]],<ref>Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", ''Becka J.'' '''119''' (1), p. 17-23.</ref> for his introduction of systematic [[experiment]]ation and [[quantification]] into the study of [[physiology]],<ref>Katharine Park (March 1990). "''Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500'' by Nancy G. Siraisi", ''The Journal of Modern History'' '''62''' (1), p. 169-170.</ref> the introduction of [[experimental medicine]] and [[clinical trial]]s,<ref name=Tschanz>David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", ''Heart Views'' '''4''' (2).</ref> the experimental use and [[Drug test|testing of drugs]], and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical [[Chemical substance|substances]],<ref>Toby E. Huff (2003), ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West'', p. 218. [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521529948.</ref> in his medical encyclopedia, ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' (11th century), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine. It laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new [[drug]]s or [[medication]]s, which still form the basis of modern clinical trials:<ref name=Tschanz/> #"The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality." #"It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease." #"The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones." #"The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them." #"The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused." #"The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect." #"The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man." ==Other fields== ===Cosmology=== {{main|Islamic astronomy}} There are several [[cosmological]] verses in the [[Qur'an]] (610-632) which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the [[Metric expansion of space|expansion of the universe]] and possibly even the [[Big Bang]] theory:<ref>{{cite web|author=A. Abd-Allah|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/scislam.html|title=The Qur'an, Knowledge, and Science|publisher=[[University of Southern California]]|accessdate=2008-01-22}}</ref> <blockquote>Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart?<ref>{{cite quran|21|30|style=ref}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand.{{cite quran|51|47|style=ref}}</blockquote> In contrast to ancient [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosophers]] who believed that the [[universe]] had an infinite past with no beginning, [[Medieval philosophy|medieval philosophers]] and [[Theology|theologians]] developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view was inspired by the doctrine of [[Creation (theology)|creation]] shared by the three [[Abrahamic religions]]: [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. The [[Christian philosophy|Christian philosopher]], [[John Philoponus]], presented the first such argument against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. However, the most sophisticated medieval arguments against an infinite past were developed by the Muslim philosopher, [[Al-Kindi]] (Alkindus); the [[Jewish philosophy|Jewish philosopher]], [[Saadia Gaon]] (Saadia ben Joseph); and the [[Kalam|Muslim theologian]], [[Al-Ghazali]] (Algazel). They developed two logical arguments against an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite", which states:<ref name=Craig>{{citation|title=Whitrow and Popper on the Impossibility of an Infinite Past|first=William Lane|last=Craig|journal=The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science|volume=30|issue=2|date=June 1979|pages=165-170 [165-6]</ref> :"An actual infinite cannot exist." :"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite." :".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist." The second argument, the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition", states:<ref name=Craig/> :"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition." :"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition." :".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite." Both arguments were adopted by later Christian philosophers and theologians, and the second argument in particular became more famous after it was adopted by [[Immanuel Kant]] in his thesis of the first antimony concerning [[time]].<ref name=Craig/> In the 10th century, the [[Brethren of Purity]] published the ''[[Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity]]'', in which a [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] view of the universe is expressed in a section on cosmology:<ref>{{Harv|Nasr|1993|p=77}}</ref> {{quote|"God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city."}} ===Epistemology=== :''Further information: [[Avicennism#Epistemology|Avicennism - Epistemology]]'' [[Avicenna]]'s most influential theory in [[epistemology]] is his theory of [[knowledge]], in which he developed the concept of [[tabula rasa]]. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "[[empirical]] familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "[[Syllogism|syllogistic]] method of [[reasoning]]; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts."<ref>Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037)], ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''</ref> In the 12th century, [[Ibn Tufail]] further developed the concept of tabula rasa in his [[Arabic literature|Arabic novel]], ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqzan]]'', in which he depicted the development of the mind of a [[feral child]] "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a [[desert island]]. The [[Latin]] translation of his work, entitled ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', published by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger in 1671, had an influence on [[John Locke]]'s formulation of tabula rasa in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]''.<ref name=Russell>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 224-262, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> ===Eschatology=== {{main|Islamic eschatology}} Islamic [[eschatology]] is concerned with the ''[[Qiyamah]]'' ([[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]]; [[Last Judgement]]) and the [[Judgement Day|final judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatology]] relates to one of the six articles of faith (''[[aqidah]]'') of [[Islam]]. Like the other [[Abrahamic religion]]s, Islam teaches the bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' ([[Heaven]]), while the unrighteous are punished in ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]). A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many ''[[hadith]]'' elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as ''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]'' (a test) and ''malahim'' (or ''ghayba'' in the [[Shi'a|shi'ite]] tradition). [[Ibn al-Nafis]] dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his ''Theologus Autodidactus'', where he [[Rationality|rationalized]] the Islamic view of eschatology using [[reason]] and [[Islamic science|science]] to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of [[Arabic literature|Arabic fiction]], hence his ''Theologus Autodidactus'' may be considered the earliest [[science fiction]] work.<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref> ===Peer review=== The first documented description of a [[peer review]] process is found in the ''Ethics of the Physician'' written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, [[Syria]], who describes the first [[medical peer review]] process. His work, as well as later [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical]] manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would [[review]] the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a [[lawsuit]] from a maltreated patient.<ref>Ray Spier (2002), "The history of the peer-review process", ''Trends in Biotechnology'' '''20''' (8), p. 357-358 [357].</ref> ===Phenomenology=== The [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhacen) is considered a pioneer of [[phenomenology]]. He articulated a relationship between the physical and observable [[World (philosophy)|world]] and that of [[intuition]], [[psychology]] and [[mental function]]s. His theories regarding [[knowledge]] and [[perception]], linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of [[existence]] based on the direct observation of [[reality]] from the observer's point of view. Much of his thought on phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century.<ref>Dr Valérie Gonzalez, "Universality and Modernity", ''The Ismaili United Kingdom'', December 2002, p. 50-53.</ref> ===Philosophical novels=== The Islamic philosophers, [[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer)<ref name=Jon>Jon Mcginnis, ''Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources'', p. 284, [[Hackett Publishing Company]], ISBN 0872208710.</ref> and [[Ibn al-Nafis]],<ref name=Meyerhof>Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "''The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis'' by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''94''' (2), p. 232-234.</ref> were pioneers of the [[philosophical novel]]. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional [[Arabic literature|Arabic novel]] ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') as a response to [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional [[novel]] ''[[Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' as a response to Ibn Tufail's ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these novels had [[protagonist]]s (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were [[Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] individuals [[Abiogenesis|spontaneously generated]] in a [[cave]] and living in seclusion on a [[desert island]], both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel.<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> Ibn al-Nafis described his book ''Theologus Autodidactus'' as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily [[resurrection]] and the [[immortality]] of the human [[soul]], using both demonstrative [[reasoning]] and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 42 & 60, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref> A Latin translation of ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' was published in 1671, prepared by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger.<ref>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 220-221, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> The first English translation by [[Simon Ockley]] was published in 1708, and [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] translations were also published at the time. ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' went on to have a significant influence on [[European literature]],<ref name=Wainwright>Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 22 March 2003.</ref> and became an influential best-seller throughout [[Western Europe]] in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=Russell-228>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 228, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> These translations later inspired [[Daniel Defoe]] to write ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the [[first novel in English]].<ref name=Wainwright/><ref>Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), ''Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature'', Al-Rashid House for Publication.</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), ''New [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.</ref><ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [369].</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also had a "profound influence" on [[Modern philosophy|modern]] [[Western philosophy]].<ref name=Toomer-218>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 218, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> It became "one of the most important books that heralded the [[Scientific Revolution]]" and [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]], and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]."<ref>Samar Attar, ''The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought'', Lexington Books, ISBN 0739119893.</ref> The novel inspired the concept of "[[tabula rasa]]" developed in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1690) by Locke, who was a student of Pococke.<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 224-239, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref><ref>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 221-222, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also developed the themes of [[empiricism]], [[tabula rasa]], [[nature versus nurture]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', pp. 224-262, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> [[condition of possibility]], [[materialism]],<ref>Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), ''The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān'', pp. 38-46, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004093001.</ref> and [[Molyneux's Problem]].<ref>Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik [[Ibn Tufayl]] and Léon Gauthier (1981), ''Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan'', p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.[http://limitedinc.blogspot.com/2007/04/things-about-arabick-influence-on-john.html]</ref> The novel also inspired [[Robert Boyle]], another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, ''The Aspiring Naturalist''.<ref name=Toomer-222>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 222, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> Other European scholars influenced by ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' include [[Gottfried Leibniz]],<ref name=Wainwright/> [[Melchisédech Thévenot]], [[John Wallis]], [[Christiaan Huygens]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 227, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> [[George Keith]], [[Robert Barclay]], the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]],<ref>G. A. Russell (1994), ''The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 247, [[Brill Publishers]], ISBN 9004094598.</ref> and [[Samuel Hartlib]].<ref name=Toomer-222/> ===Philosophy of history=== {{main|Historiography of early Islam}} The first detailed studies on the subject of [[historiography]] and the first critiques on [[historical method]]s appeared in the works of the [[Arab]] [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406), who is regarded as the father of [[historiography]], [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), p. 61-70.</ref> and the [[philosophy of history]], especially for his historiographical writings in the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' ([[Latin]]ized as ''Prolegomena'') and ''Kitab al-Ibar'' (''Book of Advice'').<ref>S. Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.</ref> His ''Muqaddimah'' also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of [[state]], [[communication]], [[propaganda]] and [[systematic bias]] in history,<ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> and he discussed the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s. [[Franz Rosenthal]] wrote in the ''History of Muslim Historiography'': {{quote|"Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing....The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the [[sociology|sociological]] understanding of [[history]] and the systematisation of [[historiography]]. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking."<ref>[http://members.tripod.com/~salems2/historiography.htm Historiography]. The Islamic Scholar.</ref>}} ===Philosophy of mind=== {{main|Islamic psychological thought}} The [[philosophy of mind]] was studied in medieval [[Islamic psychological thought]], which refers to the study of the ''[[nafs]]'' (literally "[[Self (philosophy)|self]]" or "[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]" in [[Arabic]]) in the [[Islamic world]], particularly during the [[Islamic Golden Age]] (8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to [[psychology]], [[psychiatry]] and the [[neuroscience]]s. ===Place=== The Arab polymath al-Hasan [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Alhazen; d. ca. 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of [[Aristotle]]'s conception of [[place]] (''topos'') in his ''Risala/Qawl fi’l-makan'' (''Treatise/Discourse on Place''). Aristotle's ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' (Book IV - ''Delta'') stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that place (''al-makan'') is the imagined (three-dimensional) void (''al-khala' al-mutakhayyal'') between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to [[space]], foreshadowing [[Descartes]]'s notion of place as space qua ''Extensio'' or even [[Leibniz]]'s ''analysis situs''. Ibn al-Haytham's mathematization of [[place]] rested on several geometric demonstrations, including his study on the sphere and other solids, which showed that the [[sphere]] (''al-kura'') is the largest in magnitude (volumetric) with respect to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. For instance, a sphere that has an equal surface area to that of a [[cylinder]], would be larger in (volumetric) magnitude than the cylinder; hence, the sphere occupies a larger place than that occupied by the cylinder; unlike what is entailed by [[Aristotle]]'s definition of place: that this sphere and that cylinder occupy places that are equal in magnitude.<ref> Nader El-Bizri, "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham’s Geometrisation of Place," ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' (Cambridge University Press), Vol. 17, Issue 1 (2007): 57-80.</ref> Ibn al-Haytham rejected [[Aristotle]]'s philosophical concept of place on mathematical grounds. Later, the philosopher 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (13th century) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled: ''Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan'' (''A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place''), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints.<ref> Ibid, El-Bizri, (2007) and handouts of El-Bizri's lectures at the Dept. of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk] </ref> ===Political philosophy=== Early Islamic [[political philosophy]] emphasized an inexorable link between [[science]] and [[religion]], and the process of [[ijtihad]] to find [[truth]] - in effect ''all'' philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the [[Mutazilite]] philosophers, who held a more [[secularism|secular]] view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the [[mosque]]. The only [[Greek language|Greek]] political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''. By the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]], however, the [[Asharite]] view of Islam had in general triumphed. Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of [[Islam]], i.e. the [[Qur'an]] and the [[Sunnah]], the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), [[al-Farabi]] (Alfarabi), [[Avicenna|İbn Sina]] (Avicenna), [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace), [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (Averroes), and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other [[Fiqh|jurists]] and [[Ulema|ulama]] posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the [[Kharijites|Khawarij]] in the very early years of [[Muslim history|Islamic history]] on [[Caliphate|Khilafa]] and [[Ummah]], or that of [[Shia Islam]] on the concept of [[Imamah]] are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the [[Sunni Islam|Ehl-i Sunna]] and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. The 13th century [[Arab]] scholar [[Ibn Khaldun]] is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist [[Ernest Gellner]] considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of [[government]], "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory.<ref>Ernest Gellner, ''Plough, Sword and Book'' (1988), p. 239</ref> ===Social philosophy=== {{main|Early Muslim sociology}} Despite the negative consequences of [[Ash'ari]] thought on Islamic philosophy, it did later give rise to the beginnings of [[social philosophy]]. The most famous social philosopher was the [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406), who in his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'', developed the earliest theories on social philosophy, in formulating theories of [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]]. His ''Muqaddimah'' was also the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[universal history]]. He is considered the "father of [[sociology]]", "father of [[historiography]]", and "father of the [[philosophy of history]]", for being the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and the philosophy of history in detail. ==See also== *[[Islamic philosophy]] **[[Modern Islamic philosophy]] *[[Islamic science]] *[[Islamic Golden Age]] *[[Sufi philosophy]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} ==References== *{{Harvard reference|title=Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination|first=Mehdi Amin|last=Razavi|year=1997|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=0700704124}} {{Philosophy topics}} [[Category:Islamic philosophy| ]] [[Category:History of philosophy]] [[Category:Medieval philosophy]] [[es:Filosofía islámica antigua]] [[fa:فلسفه اولیه اسلامی]]