Early Muslim sociology
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'''Early [[Islamic sociology|Muslim sociology]]''' responded to the challenges of social organization of diverse peoples all under common religious organization in the [[Islamic caliphate]], the [[Abbasid]] and later [[Mamluk]] period in Egypt. It was rooted in methods from [[early Islamic philosophy]] and [[Islamic science]] and it reflected the strong concern of [[Islam]] with [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]].
==Early Islamic sociology==
{{see|Early reforms under Islam}}
Sociologist [[Robert Bellah]] (''Beyond belief'') argues that Islam in its seventh-century origins was, for its time and place, "remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment, involvement, and participation expected from the rank-and-file members of the community." This because, he argues, that Islam emphasized on the equality of all Muslims. Leadership positions were open to all men. However, there were restraints on the early [[Ummah|Muslim community]] that kept it from exemplifying these principles, primarily from the "stagnant localisms" of tribe and kinship. Dale Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests "the early Islamic community placed a particular value on individuals, as opposed to collective or group responsibility."<ref> “Social Sciences and the Qur’an,” in Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol. 5, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 66-76. </ref>
The Islamic idea of community (that of ''umma''), established by Muhammad, is flexible in social, religious, and political terms and includes a diversity of Muslims who share a general sense of common cause and consensus concerning beliefs and individual and communal actions.<ref> “Community and Society in the Qur'an,” in Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol. 1, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 385. </ref>
===Corporate social responsibility in commerce===
[[Social responsibility]] and [[corporate social responsibility]] in [[commerce]] was stressed in early [[Islamic sociology]] during [[Muhammad]]'s time. The development of [[Islamic bank]]s and [[Islamic economics]] was a side effect of this [[sociology]]: [[usury]] was rather severely restrained, no [[interest rate]] was allowed, and investors were not permitted to escape the consequences of any failed venture - all financing was equity financing (''Musharaka''). In not letting borrowers bear all the risk/cost of a failure, an extreme disparity of outcomes between "partners" is thus avoided. Ultimately this serves a social harmony purpose. Muslims also could not and cannot (in [[shariah]]) finance any dealings in forbidden goods or activities, such as [[wine]], [[pork]], [[gambling]], etc. Thus [[ethical investing]] is the only acceptable investing, and [[moral purchasing]] is encouraged.<ref>Jawed A. Mohammed PhD and Alfred Oehlers (2007), [http://repositoryaut.lconz.ac.nz/theses/1324 Corporate social responsibility in Islam], School of Business, [[Auckland University of Technology]].</ref>
===Ecological responsibility and environmentalism===
:''Further information: [[Muslim Agricultural Revolution#Agricultural sciences|Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Agricultural sciences]]
Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of [[natural capital]], i.e. producing land. Traditions of [[haram]] and [[hima]] and early [[urban planning]] were expressions of strong social obligations to stay within [[carrying capacity]] and to preserve the [[natural environment]] as an obligation of [[khalifa]] or "stewardship".<ref name=Chatel/><ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129, [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref>
[[Muhammad]] is considered a pioneer of [[environmentalism]] for his teachings on [[environmental preservation]]. His [[hadith]]s on [[agriculture]] and [[environmental philosophy]] were compiled in the "Book of Agriculture" of the ''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'', which included the following saying:<ref name=Chatel>Francesca De Chatel (2003), [http://muslimvillage.net/story.php?id=828 Environmentalism & Islam], [[IslamOnline]].</ref><ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129 [119-129], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref>
{{quote|"There is none amongst the believers who plants a tree, or sows a seed, and then a bird, or a person, or an animal eats thereof, but it is regarded as having given a charitable gift [for which there is great recompense]."<ref>''[[Sahih Bukhari]]'' 3:513</ref>}}
Several such statements concerning the environment are also found in the [[Qur'an]], such as the following:<ref>S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), ''A Companion to Environmental Philosophy'', pp. 111-129 [111-119], [[Blackwell Publishing]], ISBN 140510659X.</ref>
{{quote|"And there is no animal in the earth nor bird that flies with its two wings, but that they are communities like yourselves."<ref>{{cite quran|6|38}}</ref>}}
===Comparative sociology===
[[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048), in the introduction to his [[Indology|study of India]], declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops [[comparative sociology]] as a [[scientific method]] in the field.<ref name=Sardar>{{citation|first=Ziauddin|last=Sardar|author-link=Ziauddin Sardar|date=1998|contribution=Science in Islamic philosophy|title=Islamic Philosophy|publisher=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> Al-Biruni is considered the "father of [[Indology]]".<ref name=Khan>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
==Ibn Khaldun==
{{see|Ibn Khaldun|Muqaddimah}}
[[Image:Ibn Khaldoun.jpg|thumb|[[Tunis]]ian statue of [[Ibn Khaldun]], the father of [[demography]], modern [[economics]], [[cultural history]], [[historiography]], the [[philosophy of history]], [[sociology]], and the [[social sciences]].]]
Without doubt the most important figure in early Muslim sociology was [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406), who is regarded as the father of [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), p. 61-70.</ref> [[historiography]],<ref>Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.</ref> the [[philosophy of history]],<ref name=Akhtar>Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name=Mowlana/><ref name=Akhtar/> and the [[social sciences]],<ref>Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25.</ref> and is viewed as a father of modern [[economics]].<ref>I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", ''Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses'', [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0887066984.</ref><ref>Jean David C. Boulakia (1971), "Ibn Khaldun: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", ''The Journal of Political Economy'' '''79''' (5): 1105-1118.</ref> He is best known for his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' "''Prolegomenon''".
[[Sati' al-Husri]] suggested that Ibn Khaldun's ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' is essentially a sociological work, sketching over its six books a general [[sociology]]; a [[Political sociology|sociology of politics]]; a sociology of [[Urban culture|urban life]]; a sociology of [[economics]]; and a [[sociology of knowledge]].
===Conflict theory===
Ibn Khaldun conceived both a central [[social conflict]] ("town" versus "desert") as well as a theory (using the concept of a "generation") of the necessary loss of power of city conquerors coming from the desert.
===Asibiyah===
{{main|Asabiyyah}}
Khaldun's central concept of ''asabiyah'', or "[[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]]", seems to anticipate modern conceptions of [[social capital]] arising in [[social network]]s:
This cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; and it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds - psychological, sociological, economic, political - of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion.
Interestingly, Khaldun's concept is instinctive and does not involve any [[social contract]] or explicit forms of [[constitution]] or other [[instructional capital]] that would provide a basis for appeals, in law or otherwise.
===Histiography===
{{main|Historiography of early Islam}}
The ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' emphasized the role of [[systemic bias]] in affecting the [[Historical method|standard of evidence]]. Khaldun was quite concerned with the effect of raising standard of evidence when confronted with uncomfortable claims, and relaxing it when given claims that seemed reasonable or comfortable. He was a jurist, and sometimes participated reluctantly in rulings that he felt were coerced, based on arguments he didn't respect.
His ''Muqaddimah'' also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of [[state]], [[communication]], [[propaganda]] and [[systematic bias]] in history,<ref name=Mowlana/> and he discussed the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s in his theory of [[Asabiyyah]]. Ibn Khaldun had few successors in his thinking about history until [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], a 20th century British historian.
===Scientific method===
[[Ibn Khaldun]] often criticized "idle [[superstition]] and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced the [[scientific method]] to the [[social sciences]], which was considered something "new to his age", and he often referred to it as his "new science" and developed his own new [[terminology]] for it.<ref>[[Ibn Khaldun]], Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), ''The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History'', p. x, [[Princeton University Press]], ISBN 0691017549.</ref>
His [[historical method]] also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of [[state]], [[communication]], [[propaganda]] and [[systematic bias]] in history,<ref name=Mowlana/> leading to his development of [[historiography]].
== Similarities to modern sociology ==
Early Muslim sociology is more similar to the theories developed by [[Hegel]] or [[Marx]] in emphasizing [[dialectic]] or [[feedback loop]]s, or [[systems theory]] as applied to fields such as [[corporate social responsibility]], than to the theories of [[Durkheim]] and others who emphasized structures. There is a remarkable similarity between modern economic ideas and some ideas developed by the thinkers evoked here, especially Ibn Khaldun.
==Psychology==
{{main|Islamic psychological thought}}
In [[psychology]], [[Islamic medicine]] stressed the need for individual understanding of their [[mental health]]. The first [[psychiatric hospital]]s and insane asylums were built in the Islamic world as early as the 8th century. The first psychiatric hospitals were built by Arab Muslims in [[Baghdad]] in 705, [[Fes]] in the early 8th century, and [[Cairo]] in 800. Other famous psychiatric hospitals were built in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]] in 1270.<ref>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7-8].</ref> Unlike medieval Christian physicians who relied on [[demon]]ological explanations for mental illness, medieval Muslim physicians relied mostly on [[clinical psychiatry]] and clinical observations on mentally ill patients. They made significant advances to psychiatry and were the first to provide [[psychotherapy]] and [[moral treatment]] for mentally ill patients, in addition to other new forms of treatment such as [[bathing|bath]]s, drug [[medication]], [[music therapy]] and [[occupational therapy]].<ref name=Syed-7>Ibrahim B. Syed PhD, "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times", ''[[The Islamic Medical Association of North America|Journal of the Islamic Medical Association]]'', 2002 (2), p. 2-9 [7].</ref>
The concepts of [[mental health]] and "mental hygiene" were introduced by the Muslim physician [[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]] (850-934). In his ''Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus'' (''Sustenance for Body and Soul''), he was the first to successfully discuss diseases related to both the body and the mind, and argued that "if the ''nafs'' [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness."<ref name=Talib>Nurdeen Deuraseh and Mansor Abu Talib (2005), "Mental health in Islamic medical tradition", ''The International Medical Journal'' '''4''' (2), p. 76-79.</ref>
Najab ud-din Muhammad (10th century) described a number of mental diseases in detail. He made many careful [[observation]]s of mentally ill patients and compiled them in a book which "made up the most complete classification of mental diseases theretofore known." The mental illnesses first described by Najab include [[agitated depression]], [[neurosis]], [[priapism]] and sexual [[impotence]] (''Nafkhae Malikholia''), [[psychosis]] (''Kutrib''), and [[mania]] (''Dual-Kulb'').<ref name=Syed-7/> Symptoms resembling [[schizophrenia]] were also reported in later Arabic medical literature.<ref>Hanafy A. Youssef and Fatma A. Youssef (1996), "Evidence for the existence of schizophrenia in medieval Islamic society", ''History of Psychiatry'' '''7''' (25): 55-62.</ref>
[[Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi]] was a pioneer of psychotherapy, [[psychophysiology]] and [[psychosomatic medicine]]. He recognized that the [[body]] and the [[soul]] can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced", and that mental illness can have both [[psychological]] and/or [[physiological]] causes. He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in [[fever]], [[headache]]s and other physical illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in [[anger]], [[anxiety]], [[sadness]] and other mental symptoms. He recognized two types of [[Clinical depression|depression]]: one caused by known reasons such as [[loss]] or [[failure]], which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine.<ref name=Talib/>
[[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes) and al-Balkhi were the first known physicians to study psychotherapy. Razi was a Persian and Zoroasterian who adopted Islam only in name. He had a disdain for Islam. Razi in particular made significant advances in psychiatry in his landmark texts ''El-Mansuri'' and ''Al-Hawi'' in the [[10th century]], which presented [[definition]]s, [[symptom]]s and [[treatment]]s for problems related to [[mental health]] and [[mental illness]]. He also ran the psychiatric ward of a [[Baghdad]] hospital. Such institutions could not exist in Europe at the time because of fear of [[demonic possession]]s.<ref name=Syed-7/>
In [[al-Andalus]], [[Abu al-Qasim]] (Abulcasis), the father of modern [[surgery]], developed material and technical designs which are still used in [[neurosurgery]]. [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) gave the first accurate descriptions on [[neurological]] disorders, including [[meningitis]], intracranial [[thrombophlebitis]], and [[mediastinal germ cell tumor]]s, and made contributions to modern [[neuropharmacology]]. [[Averroes]] suggested the existence of [[Parkinson's disease]] and attributed [[photoreceptor]] properties to the [[retina]]. [[Maimonides]] wrote about [[neuropsychiatric]] disorders and described [[rabies]] and [[Deadly nightshade|belladonna]] intoxication.<ref name=Araguz>Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", ''Revista de neurología'' '''34''' (9), p. 877-892.</ref>
[[Ibn al-Haytham]] is considered by some to be the founder of [[experimental psychology]] and [[psychophysics]],<ref name=Khaleefa>Omar Khaleefa (Summer 1999). "Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?", ''American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences'' '''16''' (2).</ref> for his pioneering work on the [[psychology]] of [[visual perception]] in the ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name=Steffens/> In Book III of the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', [[Ibn al-Haytham]] was the first [[scientist]] to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are [[Subjectivity|subjective]].<ref name=Steffens>Bradley Steffens (2006). ''Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist'', Chapter 5. Morgan Reynolds Publishing. ISBN 1599350246.</ref>
Along with [[al-Kindi]] and Ibn al-Haytham, [[al-Biruni]] was also a pioneer of experimental psychology, as he was the first to [[empirical]]ly describe the concept of [[reaction time]]:<ref>[[Muhammad Iqbal]], ''[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]'', "The Spirit of Muslim Culture" ([[cf.]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction] and [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MI_RRTI/chapter_05.htm])</ref>
{{quote|"Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the sense-organ, which demands a certain time, but also, between the stimulation of the organ and consciousness of the perception an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of stimulus for some distance along the nerves."}}
[[Avicenna]] was a pioneer of psychophysiology and psychosomatic medicine. He recognized 'physiological psychology' in the treatment of illnesses involving [[emotion]]s, and developed a system for associating changes in the [[pulse]] rate with inner feelings, which is seen as an anticipation of the [[word association]] test attributed to [[Carl Jung]].<ref name=Syed-7/> Avicenna was also a pioneer of [[neuropsychiatry]]. He first described numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, including [[hallucination]], [[insomnia]], [[mania]], [[nightmare]], [[melancholia]], [[dementia]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], [[stroke]], [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]] and [[tremor]].<ref>S Safavi-Abbasi, LBC Brasiliense, RK Workman (2007), "The fate of medical knowledge and the neurosciences during the time of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire", ''Neurosurgical Focus'' '''23''' (1), E13, p. 3.</ref>
===Social psychology===
[[Image:200TengeNote.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Farabi]] (Alpharabius) was a pioneer of [[social psychology]].]]
The earliest works on [[social psychology]] and [[Comparative psychology|animal psychology]] were written by [[al-Jahiz]] (766–868), an [[Afro-Arab]] scholar who wrote a number of works dealing with the social organization of [[ant]]s and with animal [[communication]] and psychology.<ref name=Amber-376>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [376].</ref>
[[Al-Farabi]]'s ''Social Psychology'' and ''Model City'' were also some of the first treatises to deal with [[social psychology]]. Al Farabi's parents were both Persian/Iranian. His family was forced to adopt Islam. His thinking and writings were intrinsically derived from his Persian heritage. His name is based on the name of the Farab river in Iran. He stated that "an isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other individuals." He wrote that it is the "innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform." He concluded that in order to "achieve what he can of that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them." Al-Farabi's treatise ''Meanings of the Intellect'' dealt with [[music therapy]], where he discussed the [[Therapy|therapeutic]] effects of music on the [[soul]].<ref name=Amber-363>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [363].</ref>
==Other social sciences==
[[Image:Abu-Rayhan Biruni 1973 Afghanistan post stamp.jpg|thumb|right|[[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], "the first [[anthropology|anthropologist]]" and the father of [[Indology]].]]
===Anthropology===
[[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] (973-1048) has been described as "the first anthropologist".<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> He wrote detailed comparative studies on the [[anthropology]] of peoples, religions and cultures in the [[Middle East]], [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and [[South Asia]], especially in [[History of India|India]]'s case, for which he is considered the "father of [[Indology]]".<ref name=Khan/> Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.<ref>J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''59''' (3), p. 389-403.</ref>
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his [[Islam]]ic anthropology.<ref>Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '''68''' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.</ref>
===Economics===
{{main|Islamic economics in the world}}
To some degree, the early Muslims based their [[Economics|economic]] analyses on the [[Qu'ran]] (such as opposition to ''[[riba]]'', meaning [[usury]] or [[interest]]), and from [[sunnah]], the sayings and doings of [[Muhammad]].
Perhaps the most well known Islamic scholar who wrote about economics was [[Ibn Khaldun]] of [[Tunisia]] ([[1332]]–[[1406]]),<ref>Schumpeter (1954) p 136 mentions his his sociology, others, including Hosseini (2003) emphasize him as well</ref> who is considered a father of modern economics.<ref>I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", ''Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses'', [[New York University Press]], ISBN 0887066984.</ref><ref>Jean David C. Boulakia (1971), "Ibn Khaldun: A Fourteenth-Century Economist", ''The Journal of Political Economy'' '''79''' (5): 1105-1118.</ref> Ibn Khaldun wrote on economic and political theory in the introduction, or ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (''Prolegomena''), of his ''History of the World'' (''Kitab al-Ibar''). In the book, he discussed what he called ''asabiyya'' (social cohesion), which he sourced as the cause of some civilizations becoming great and others not. Ibn Khaldun felt that many social forces are cyclic, although there can be sudden sharp turns that break the pattern.<ref>Weiss (1995) p29-30</ref> His idea about the benefits of the division of labor also relate to ''asabiyya'', the greater the social cohesion, the more complex the successful division may be, the greater the economic growth. He noted that growth and development positively stimulates both supply and demand, and that the forces of supply and demand are what determines the prices of goods.<ref>Weiss (1995) p31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:276-278</ref> He also noted macroeconomic forces of population growth, [[human capital]] development, and technological developments effects on development.<ref>Weiss (1995) p31 quotes Muqaddimah 2:272-273</ref> In fact, Ibn Khaldun thought that population growth was directly a function of wealth. <ref>Weiss (1995) p33</ref>
Other important early Muslim scholars who wrote about economics include [[Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man]] (699-767), [[Abu Yusuf]] (731-798), Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931), [[al-Farabi]] (873–950), [[Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir|Qabus]] (d. 1012), [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna) (980–1037), [[Ibn Miskawayh]] (b. 1030), [[al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111), [[al-Mawardi]] (1075–1158), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201-1274), [[Ibn Taymiyyah]] (1263–1328) and [[al-Maqrizi]] (1364-1442).
===History===
{{see also|Historiography of early Islam}}
;Science of hadith
The "[[science of hadith]]" is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate [[hadith]]. The classification of Hadith into [[Sahih]] (sound), [[Hasan]] (good) and [[Da'if]] (weak) was firmly established by [[Ali ibn al-Madini]] ([[161 AH|161]]-[[234 AH]]). Later, al-Madini's student [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]] (810-870) authored a collection that he believed contained only Sahih hadith, which is now known as the ''[[Sahih Bukhari]]''. Al-Bukhari's [[historical method]]s of testing hadiths and [[isnad]]s is seen as the beginning of the method of [[citation]] and a precursor to the [[scientific method]] which was developed by later [[Islamic science|Muslim scientists]]. I. A. Ahmad writes:<ref>{{citation|first=I. A.|last=Ahmad|contribution=The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study|title=Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity|publisher=[[Al Akhawayn University]]|date=June 3, 2002|url=http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf |accessdate=2008-01-31}}</ref>
;History of science
[[Al-Saghani]] (d. 990) wrote some of the earliest comments on the [[history of science]]. These included the following comparison between the "ancients" (including the ancient [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], [[Greeks]] and [[History of India|Indians]]) and the "modern scholars" (the [[Islamic science|Muslim scientists]] of his time):
{{quote|"The ancients distinguished themselves through their chance discovery of basic principles and the invention of ideas. The modern scholars, on the other hand, distinguish themselves through the invention of a multitude of scientific details, the simplification of difficult (problems), the combination of scattered (information), and the explanation of (material which already exists in) coherent (form). The ancients came to their particular achievements by virtue of their priority in time, and not on account of any natural qualification and intelligence. Yet, how many things escaped them which then became the original inventions of modern scholars, and how much did the former leave for the latter to do."<ref>[[Franz Rosenthal]] (1950). "Al-Asturlabi and as-Samaw'al on Scientific Progress", ''Osiris'' '''9''', p. 555-564 [559].</ref>}}
;World history
[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]] (838-923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive [[chronicle]] of [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean]] and [[History of the Middle East|Middle Eastern]] history in his ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]'' in 915.
[[Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī]] (896-956), known as the "[[Herodotus]] of the [[Arabs]]", was the first to combine [[history]] and [[Science|scientific]] [[geography]] in a large-scale work, ''Muruj adh-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir'' (''The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems''), a book on [[world history]].
Along with his ''Researches on India'', [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]] (973-1048) discussed more on his idea of history in his [[Chronology|chronological]] work ''The Chronology of the Ancient Nations''.<ref name=Khan/>
;Egyptology
The study of [[Egyptology]] began in [[History of Arab Egypt|Arab Egypt]] from the 9th century. The first known attempts at deciphering [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] were made by [[Dhul-Nun al-Misri]] and [[Ibn Wahshiyya]] in the 9th century, who were able to at least partly understand what was written. [[Abd-el-latif|Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi]], a teacher at [[Cairo]]'s [[Al-Azhar University]] in the 13th century, wrote detailed descriptions on [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|ancient Egyptian monuments]].<ref name=Daly1>Dr. Okasha El Daly (2005), ''Egyptology: The Missing Millennium: Ancient Egypt in Medieval Arabic Writings'', [[University College London|UCL Press]], ISBN 1844720632. ([[cf.]] [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=481 Arabic Study of Ancient Egypt], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)</ref>
The first known attempts at deciphering [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]] were made by made by Arab historians in [[History of Arab Egypt|medieval Egypt]] during the 9th and 10th centuries. By then, hieroglyphs had long been forgotten in [[Egypt]], and were replaced by the [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] and [[Arabic alphabet]]s. [[Dhul-Nun al-Misri]] and [[Ibn Wahshiyya]] were the first historians to be able to at least partly decipher what was written in the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs,<ref name=Daly1/> by relating them to the contemporary [[Coptic language]] used by [[Copt]]ic priests in their time.<ref name=Daly2>Dr. Okasha El Daly, [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=712 Deciphering Egyptian Hieroglyphs in Muslim Heritage], [[Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester]].</ref>
The Egyptian Muslim historian Mourtadi wrote an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] book on ancient Egyptian monuments, which was later published in [[France]] and [[Great Britain|Britain]] in the 17th century. Ibn Wahshiyya's Arabic book on Egyptology, in which he deciphered a number of Egyptian hieroglyphs, An Arabic manuscript of Ibn Wahshiyya's work was later read by [[Athanasius Kircher]] in the 17th century, and then translated and published in English by Joseph Hammer in 1806 as ''Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained; with an Account of the Egyptian Priests, their Classes, Initiation, and Sacrifices in the Arabic Language by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahishih'', 16 years before [[Jean-François Champollion]]'s complete decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs.<ref name=Daly2/>
;Indology
Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with [[Persian people|Persian]] historian [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]] (973-1048). In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind'' (''Researches on India''), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on [[India (disambiguation)|India]]'s [[Culture of India|cultural]], [[Science and technology in ancient India|scientific]], social and [[Religion in India|religious]] history.<ref name=Khan>M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", ''Oriens'' '''25''', p. 86-115.</ref> Biruni is considered the father of [[Indology]] for his detailed studies on [[History of India|Indian history]].<ref>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Islamic sociology]]
*[[Early reforms under Islam]]
*[[Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Islamic economic jurisprudence]]
**[[Islamic economics in the world]]
*[[Islamic science]]
**[[Islamic medicine]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Sociology|Muslim sociology]]
[[Category:Islamic politics and Islamic world studies|Sociology]]
[[Category:Islamic medicine|Sociology]]