Early thermal weapons 1060546 222540455 2008-06-29T22:05:51Z Lightmouse 4469495 Units/dates/other using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] [[Image:Roberts Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70'', by [[John Roberts]] (1850), shows the city burning]] '''Early thermal weapons''' were devices or substances used in [[warfare]] during the [[Classical antiquity|classical]] and [[Middle Ages|medieval]] periods (approx 8th century BC until the [[16th century|mid-16th century AD]]) which used heat or burning action to destroy or damage enemy personnel, fortifications or territories. [[Incendiary device]]s were frequently used as projectiles during warfare, particularly during [[siege]]s and [[naval warfare|naval battles]]; some substances were boiled or heated to inflict damage by [[scalding]] or burning. Other substances relied on their [[chemical properties]] to inflict burns or damage. These weapons or devices could be used by [[Warrior|individuals]], manipulated by [[Siege engine|war machines]], or utilised as army [[Military strategy|strategy]]. The simplest, and most common, thermal projectiles were boiling water and hot sand, which could be poured over attacking personnel. Other [[anti-personnel weapon]]s included the use of hot [[pitch (resin)|pitch]], oil, [[resin]], animal fat and other similar compounds. Smoke was used to confuse or drive off attackers. Substances such as [[quicklime]] and [[sulfur]] could be toxic and blinding. Fire and incendiary weapons were used against enemy structures and territory, as well as personnel, sometimes on a massive scale. Large tracts of land, towns and villages were frequently destroyed as part of a [[scorched earth]] strategy. Incendiary mixtures, such as the oil-based [[Greek fire]], could be launched by throwing machines or administered through a [[siphon]]. Sulfur- and oil-soaked materials were sometimes ignited and thrown at the enemy, or attached to spears, arrows and [[Quarrel|bolts]] and fired by hand or machine. Some siege techniques, such as [[Mining (military)|mining]] and boring relied on combustibles and fire to complete the collapse of walls and structures. Towards the latter part of the period, [[gunpowder]] was discovered, which increased the sophistication of the weapons, and led to the eventual development of the [[cannon]] and other [[firearms]]. Development of the early weapons has continued ever since, with a number of modern war weapons, such as [[napalm]], [[flame thrower]]s, and other [[Explosive material|explosives]] having direct roots in the original early thermal weapons. Fire-raising and other destructive strategies can still be seen in modern [[strategic bombing]]. =="Fire and sword"== <div style="float:centre; width: 750px; background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding:5px; margin:5px"> <span style="font-size:90%; text-align:center"> "Behold from your walls the lands laid waste with fire and sword, booty driven off, the houses set on fire in every direction and smoking." <small> [[Livy]], ''The History of Rome''<ref>Titus Livius, [http://books.google.com/books?id=cdV61TmnmugC The History of Rome] p. 335 </ref></small> </span> </div> The destruction of enemy possessions and territory was a fundamental strategy of war, serving the dual purpose of punishment and deprivation of resources.<ref name="PrestwichFS">Prestwich, pp. 198–200</ref> Until the 5th century BC, the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] had little expertise in siege warfare and relied on a strategy of devastation to draw the enemy out; they destroyed crops, trees and houses. Centuries later, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] recommended this strategy, even though they had developed siege technology.<ref>Nossov, pp. 27, 58</ref> Fire was the easiest way of harrying and destroying territories, and could be done easily and quickly by small forces.<ref name="Traquir198">Traquir, p. 198</ref> It was a strategy put to good use by the [[Scotland in the Late Middle Ages|Scots]] during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]]; they repeatedly raided into northern [[England]], firing much of the countryside until the whole region was transformed.<ref name="PrestwichFS"/> [[Edward II of England|King Edward II]] of England pursued one raiding party in 1327 by following the lights of burning villages.<ref name="Traquir198"/> <div style="float:right; width: 200px; background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding:5px; margin:5px"> <span style="font-size:90%; text-align:center"> <big>"War without fire is like sausages without mustard"</big> <small>– [[Jean Juvénal des Ursins]] on [[Henry V of England|Henry V's]] firing of [[Meaux]] in 1421<ref name="Siege170">Bradbury (1992), p. 170</ref></small> </span> </div> The tactics were replicated by England during the [[Hundred Years' War]]; fire became their chief weapon as they laid waste to the [[France|French]] countryside during lightning raids called [[chevauchée]]s, in a form of economic warfare. One estimate records the destruction of over 2000 villages and castles during one raid in 1339.<ref>Prestwich, pp. 200–2</ref> As well as causing the destruction of lands, foods and belongings, fire could also be used to divert manpower. 13th century [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] armies regularly sent out small detachments from their main forces to start grass fires and fire settlements as diversions.<ref>Carey et al, p. 118</ref> Devastation by fire was not only used as an offensive tactic; some countries and armies employed '[[scorched earth]]' policies on their own land to deprive invading armies of all food and forage. [[Robert I of Scotland]] reacted to the English invasion of 1322 by launching punitive and diversionary chevauchées into north-west England, then retreating to [[Culross]], burning as he went the Scottish lands which lay in the path of the English army. The English ran out of food and had to abandon the campaign.<ref>Traquir, p. 228</ref> Such acts of aggression were not limited to wars against territorial enemies, but could form part of the strategies of conquest, subjugation and punishment of rebellion. [[Alexander the Great]] suppressed a revolt in [[Thebes, Greece]] in 335 BC, after which he ordered the city to be torched and laid waste.<ref>Cartledge, p. 57</ref> Alexander ordered (or allowed) a similar arson at [[Persepolis]] in 330 BC.<ref>Cartledge, p. 99</ref> It was a policy which was repeated throughout the period. Following his [[Norman conquest of England|conquest of England]] in the 11th century, [[William I of England]] asserted his control of [[Northumbria]] by [[Harrying of the North|destructive campaigns]] throughout the region: "He ordered that crops and herds, tools and food should be burned to ashes. More than 100,000 people perished of hunger," reported [[Orderic Vitalis]], a contemporary chronicler.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.normanconquest.co.uk/orderics_reaction.htm|publisher=NormanConquest.co.uk|title=Orderic's reaction|date=[[24 October]] [[2007]]}}</ref> It was a scene repeated the following century, during the [[The Anarchy|anarchy]] of [[Stephen of England]]'s reign. Civil war erupted between Stephen's supporters and those of the [[Empress Matilda]], a rival claimant for the throne. The [[Deeds of King Stephen|''Gesta Stephani'']] tells of the deeds of one of Stephen's supporters, [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester#Family and children|Philip of Gloucester]], by describing how he "raged in all directions with fire and sword, violence and plunder", reducing territory to "bare fields and dreadful desert".<ref>quoted in Prestwich, p. 199</ref> ==Techniques of use== [[Image:Tapisserie motte dinan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Normans]] use torches to fire the wooden keep on a [[Motte-and-bailey|motte]] at [[Dinan]], 1064, <small>[[Bayeux Tapestry]]</small>]] At the simplest level, fire itself was used as a weapon to cause large-scale destruction, or to target specific enemy positions or machinery. It was frequently used against [[siege engine]]s and wooden structures.<ref name ="Nossov190">Nossov, p. 190</ref> Incendiary weapons could be used to set fire to towns and fortifications, and a wide range of thermal weapons were used against enemy personnel. Some armies developed specialised "fire-troops". By 837, many Muslim armies had groups of "naffatin" (fire archers),<ref name="2Nicolle85">Nicolle (1996), p. 85</ref> and when the [[Mamluk|Mamluk Sultanate]] raised a fleet for an attack on Cyprus they had "nafata", or firetroops.<ref name="2Nicolle181">Nicolle (1996), p. 181</ref> ====Simple fire-raising==== The burning of enemy positions and equipment was not necessarily a complicated procedure, and many fires were set by individuals using common materials. When [[William I of England]]'s army besieged [[Mayenne, Mayenne|Mayenne]] in 1063, they shot fire into the castle to panic the garrison, while two boys stole into the castle in order to start a fire within. The garrison surrendered.<ref name="Bradbury151">Bradbury (2004), p. 151</ref> Besieged forces would sometimes launch [[sortie]]s in an attempt to fire the attackers camps or equipment. When [[Hugh Capet]] besieged [[Laon]] in 986–987, his troops became drunk one night, and [[Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine|Duke Charles's]] men sallied forth and torched the camp, forcing Hugh to abandon the siege.<ref name="Bradbury202">Bradbury (2004), p. 202</ref> The besieged were not the only ones who might fire siege equipment; when [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I Barbarossa]] abandoned his siege of [[Alexandria]] in 1175, he burned his own camp and equipment.<ref>Bradbury (2004), p. 161</ref> However, like all weapons, fire-raising had its own dangers. In 651 [[Penda of Mercia]] attempted to win [[Bamburgh Castle]] by building a pyre at its base from planks, beams, [[wattle]] and [[thatch]]. The wind changed direction and the fire blew back on Penda's men, who had to abandon the attack. This fortuitous wind-change was credited to [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Saint Aidan]], who saw the smoke from the [[Farne Islands]] and prayed for the defenders.<ref name="Bradbury135">Bradbury (2004), p. 135</ref> [[Image:Greek Fire Catapult (Harper's Engraving).png|thumb|right|200px|1869 engraving showing a 13th century [[trebuchet]] launching an incendiary missile]] ====Throwing machines==== {{main|Siege engine}} A number of throwing machines were in use throughout the classical and medieval periods. Generally referred to as "[[artillery]]", these engines could hurl, fire or shoot missiles and most could be used or adapted for throwing thermal weapons, by attacking and defending forces.<ref name="Bradbury299">Bradbury (2004), p. 299</ref> Barrels and other breakable containers of [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]], [[Greek fire]], and other incendiary mixtures could be thrown;<ref name="Nicolle208">Nicolle (1995), p. 208</ref> other machines fired arrows and bolts, which could be ignited, or adapted to carry flammable mixtures.<ref name="Nossov1335">Nossov, pp. 133–5</ref> From the 12th century, Muslims in [[Syria]] were using clay and glass [[grenades]] for fire weapons, thrown by machines.<ref name="2Nicolle178">Nicolle (1996), p. 178</ref> Most of the terms used for throwing machines were vague, and could refer to a number of specific engines, and all went through a number of changes and developments over the period. Among the most common were the [[ballista]], [[mangonel]] and [[trebuchet]]. The [[ballista]] was developed from large [[crossbow]]s and served as a [[catapult]], which used a string-winding mechanism to fire a missile or bolt placed in a groove.<ref name="Bradbury300">Bradbury (2004), p. 300</ref> Other giant crossbows were used throughout the period, and an "espringal", which threw large bolts, was developed in the 13th century.<ref>Nossov, pp. 159–160</ref> Torsion-powered arrow firers had been used from 400 BC, and were adapted for stones.<ref name="Nossov1335"/> A mangonel had a wooden spoon-shaped arm, to hold a stone or object, which was manipulated under tension from a twisted rope.<ref name="Bradbury305">Bradbury (2004), p. 305</ref> The trebuchet was an advanced development of the 12th or 13th century, which used a counter-weight to power the throwing arm, and was the major siege engine until the cannon became widespread.<ref name="Bradbury305"/> ====Thermal weapons in mining==== {{main|Mining (military)}} Forces attacking a castle of other strong fortification would sometimes seek to undermine the foundations by digging "mines" or tunnels underneath them. Usually, such mining or digging machinery would be protected by a ''tortoise'' (also called a ''cat'', ''sow'', or ''owl''): a covered shed on wheels, which would protect the miners from missile attack.<ref name="Nossov123">Nossov, p. 123</ref> As the tunnels were constructed, they would generally be supported by wooden beams and posts.<ref name="Bradbury303">Bradbury (2004), p. 303</ref> Once the mine had been finished, the internal space was filled with combustibles, such as brushwood, firewood, resin, and other incendiary substances; once ignited, these would burn the supporting props, causing the mine to collapse, bringing down with it the structures lying above.<ref name="Nossov124">Nossov, p. 124</ref> From the 15th century, [[gunpowder]] was also used, although the aim remained to burn the props.<ref>Nossov, p. 126</ref> Defenders might sometimes dig counter-tunnels in order to reach the enemy's mines and launch an attack; frequently thermal weapons would be used to drive the besiegers from the tunnels.<ref>Nossov, pp. 129–131</ref> Rather than undermining a structure, some besiegers used borers to drill holes in the outer walls in an effort to destroy them; such methods were more effective than [[battering ram|rams]] on brick walls (which tended to absorb the shocks from the ram).<ref name="Nossov99">Nossov, p. 99</ref> Borers differed in size and mechanism, but a typical machine was made from a log of wood, tipped with iron and supported and driven by windlasses or ropes.<ref name="Nossov99"/> Once a series of holes had been bored along the length of a wall, the holes were typically filled with rods of dry wood, saturated with sulfur or pitch and then ignited. Bellows could be used to encourage a blaze.<ref>Nossov, pp. 101–2</ref> [[Image:Chinese Fire Ships.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Chinese fire ships from the [[Wujing Zongyao]] military manuscript, 1044, [[Song Dynasty]].]] ====Fire ships==== {{main|Fire ship}} [[Fire ship]]s were used on a number of occasions throughout the period. In 332 BC [[Alexander the Great]] lay siege to [[Siege of Tyre|Tyre]], a coastal base of the [[Phoenicia]]ns. In order to bring his siege engines within range, Alexander ordered the construction of [[Mole (architecture)|moles]]. The Tyrians responded by attacking the first mole with a large fireship, which destroyed it. A large horse transport ship was packed with cedar torches, pitch, dried brush and other combustibles; above this were suspended cauldrons of sulfur, bitumen and "every sort of material apt to kindle and nourish flame".<ref>quote from Cartledge, p. 149</ref> This was towed to the mole, and lit by the Phoenicians before they jumped overboard and swam away.<ref>Cartledge, pp. 148–9</ref> Another example occurred during the 886 [[Siege of Paris (885-886)|Siege of Paris]], when the [[Vikings]] filled three warships with combustible material and pulled them upriver in a failed attempt to destroy the [[Franks]]' fortified bridges.<ref name="Bennett222">Bennett et al, p. 222</ref> Fire ships containing straw and [[Gunpowder|powder]] were also used during the Chinese [[Battle of Lake Poyang]] in 1363.<ref>Nicolle (1996), p. 210</ref> ====Other methods==== Often ingenious methods were developed for administering the weapons. The 10th-century [[Olga of Kiev]] is reported to have tied burning tinder to birds which, when released, flew back to their nests in the hostile town and set them alight.<ref name="Nossov191">Nossov, p. 191</ref> [[Siege towers]] and ladders could be fitted with a long, narrow tilting beam at the top, gouged with a groove, so that hot oil and water could be poured down on the enemy defenders during an [[escalade]].<ref name=Nossov78">Nossov, p. 78</ref> <!-- ====Thermal weapons as defence==== making one section until sections are expanded--> During an attack, castle or fortification defenders could launch or pour the substances on the heads of attackers below. This could be done over the [[battlements]], but also through purpose-built holes such as [[machicolation]]s and [[murder-hole]]s.<ref name="Kaufmann61"/> [[India]]n records suggest smoke and fire was used defensively within a fortress to confuse and disorientate attackers; iron grills could also be heated and used to block passageways.<ref>Nicolle (1996), p. 208</ref> During night attacks, defenders could drop lighted bundles over the walls so the enemy could be seen; Chinese and Muslim sources also describe the light gained by [[torch]]es hung on the walls.<ref name="2Nicolle206">Nicolle (2006), p. 206</ref> ====Use against stone castles==== Stone castles were susceptible to fire, since they contained many combustible materials.<ref name="Prestwich291">Prestwich, p. 291</ref> In 1139, Henry de Tracy forced the surrender of [[Castle Hill, Torrington|Torrington Castle]] by the simple expedient of tossing lighted torches through the [[Keep|keep's]] [[Embrasure|loopholes]].<ref>Prestwich, pp. 297–8</ref> Stone was also susceptible to intense heat, which would cause it to crack and collapse. Byzantine sources recorded the demolition of stone structures caused by placing clay pots of burning [[charcoal]] at the base of walls moistened with vinegar or urine,<ref name="Nossov191">Nossov, p. 191</ref> and the 6th century treatise by an engineer in [[Justinian I|Justinian's]] army includes the lighting fires beneath the walls amongst its instructions for sieges.<ref name="2Nicolle45">Nicolle (1996), p. 45</ref> Stone castles sometimes offered other inflammatory targets. During the [[Crusades]], Muslim defenders frequently hung bundles of straw against their walls as buffers against stones and [[battering ram|rams]]; in turn, the Crusader archers would set these alight with fire arrows.<ref name="2Nicolle174">Nicolle (1996), p. 174</ref> ====Defence against thermal attack==== Defence from thermal weapons and fire attacks was usually water or other liquids such as urine; hides were soaked and draped over vulnerable wooden [[Hoarding (castles)|hoardings]] and siege engines, and vats and barrels of liquid were collected and stored by defenders and attackers.<ref name="Kaufmann61"/> Hides were hung in an overlapping manner so that any water would run down the whole structure to extinguish flames.<ref name="Nossov108"/> Some thermal weapons (such as [[quicklime]] or oil) could not be extinguished or eased by water, in which case sand or earth could be used.<ref name="Nossov203">Nossov, p. 203</ref> Wooden structures were frequently soaked in [[alum]] to increase their fire resistance.<ref name="Nossov203"/> The Romans covered their ''tortoises'' (mobile siege sheds) with [[Rawhide|raw hides]] packed with vinegar-soaked seaweed or [[chaff]], to serve as protection against regular and incendiary missiles.<ref>Nossov, p. 85</ref> Throughout the period, sacks or nets might be filled with vinegar-moistened chaff, seaweed or wet moss and hung on the exterior.<ref name="Nossov108">Nossov, p. 108</ref> The wooden siege engines of the [[Crusaders]] were vulnerable to attack from the Byzantine and Muslim fire-weapons, so the troops inside siege towers kept stores of water and vinegar.<ref>Nicolle (1996) pp. 173–4</ref> During the [[High Middle Ages]], the majority of [[Poland]]'s castles were still made of wood, so uncut stone was frequently added to the front to improve their fire defences.<ref>Kaufmann & Kaufmann, p. 126</ref> Both attackers and defenders needed to be prepared for incendiary and thermal attack. When the [[Athens|Athenians]] besieged [[Syracuse]] in 416 BC they lost many siege engines to fire. The Syracusan ruler [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] must have taken note of this success, for when he laid siege to [[Motya]] in 398 BC he organised special fire "brigades", who successfully doused the fires when his siege engines were bombarded.<ref name="Nossov36"/> ==Types of weapons== ====Fire arrows, bolts, spears and rockets==== Lit torches (burning sticks) were likely the earliest form of incendiary device. They were followed by incendiary arrows, which were used throughout the ancient and medieval periods. The simplest flaming arrows had oil- or resin-soaked [[tow]]s tied just below the arrowhead and were effective against wooden structures.<ref name="Nossov190"/> Both the [[Assyria]]ns and the [[Judea]]ns used fire arrows at the siege of [[Lachish]] in 701 BC.<ref>Grant, p. 17</ref> More sophisticated devices were developed by the [[Military history of ancient Rome|Romans]] which had iron boxes and tubes which were filled with incendiary substances and attached to arrows or spears. These arrows needed to be fired from loose bows, since swift flight extinguished the flame; spears could be launched by hand or throwing machine.<ref>Nossov, pp. 190–191</ref> Fire arrows and crossbow bolts were used throughout the period. 15th Century writer Gutierre Diaz de Gamez witnessed a Spanish attack on the [[Moors|Moorish]] town of [[Oran]] in 1404 and later described how "During the most part of the night, the [[galley]]s did not cease from firing bolts and quarrells dipped in tar into the town, which is near the sea. The noise and the cries which came from the town were very great by reason of the havoc that was wrought."<ref>Diaz de Gamez, p. 90</ref> A {{convert|2|m|yd|abbr=on}} long iron crossbow-bolt probably designed to carry a fire cartridge was found in a 13th-14th century castle in [[Vladimir]], Eastern [[Russia]].<ref name="Nicolle121">Nicolle (1996), p 121</ref> Such large machine-thrown bolts were ideal for incendiary weapons. The [[Mongols]] used an "ox-bow" machine to throw bolts which had been dipped in burning pitch, with a range of 2500 paces.<ref name="2Nicolle121">Nicolle (1996), p. 121</ref> [[Anna Comnena]] records that at the 1091 Battle of Levunium, lighted torches were fixed to spears.<ref>Bradbury (2004), p. 176</ref> Primitive rockets made from bamboo and leather were used by the Mongols, under [[Genghis Khan]], but were inaccurate.<ref name="Carey119"/> However, the [[Fatamid]]s used "Chinese arrows" from the 11th Century, which probably included [[saltpetre]].<ref name="2Nicolle85">Nicolle (1996), p. 85</ref> The [[Mamluk]]s experimented with a rocket-powered weapons described as "an egg which moves itself and burns."<ref>quoted in Nicolle (1996), p. 181</ref> [[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Depiction of Greek fire in the late 11th century [[John Skylitzes|Madrid Skylitzes manuscript]].]] ====Greek fire==== {{main|Greek fire}} Greek fire was one of the most effective thermal devices, although it was extremely dangerous for the users.<ref name="Bennett241"/> A combustible liquid, it could be shot from siphons or catapults, and it burst into flames on impact. First developed by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in the 7th century, it was later used by the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Turks]] during the [[Crusades]], and was probably first used in Western Europe in the 12th century.<ref name="Bradbury302">Bradbury (2004), p. 302</ref> Early experiments by the Byzantines in the 6th century used a mixture of sulfur and oil, which would have been terrifying if not destructive.<ref name="2Nicolle45">Nicolle (1996), p. 45</ref> Various versions seem to have existed, and the recipes were frequently kept secret; experts today still debate the exact composition, although some recipes are known.<ref>Nossov, pp. 196–8</ref> It probably had regional variations; the Islamic derivative was known as "naft" and had a [[petroleum]] base, with sulfur.<ref name="2Nicolle194">Nicolle (1996), p. 194</ref> The combustible liquid could be shot from catapults, and would burst into flames on impact.<ref name="Bradbury302"/> Siphons, frequently of copper, were also developed, first appearing in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="2Nicolle85>Nicolle (1996), p. 85</ref> The siphons could shoot a blazing stream, which a 10th century [[Mesopotamia]]n source claimed could engulf twelve men.<ref name="2Nicolle194"/> [[Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi]], who wrote a military manual for [[Saladin]] in the 12th century, suggested that "naft" could be placed inside blown eggshells, which could be thrown from horseback.<ref name="2Nicolle194"/> From the 12th century, mouth-blown tubes were developed for use in mines.<ref name="2Nicolle85"/> Similar petroleum and bitumen-based incendiary mixtures had been known for centuries before the invention of Greek fire, but this new recipe created a blaze which was extremely difficult to extinguish.<ref name="2Nicolle45>Nicolle (1996), p. 45</ref> It burned on water, and was used effectively in naval warfare,<ref name="Kaufmann61"/> although it was primarily an anti-personnel weapon rather than a ship-burner.<ref name="Bennett215">Bennett et al, p. 215</ref> It remained effective at sea even after its use had declined on land after the 13th century.<ref name="2Nicolle194"/> The Greek fire recipes continued to be developed over the centuries, and by the [[High Middle Ages]] was much more sophisticated than the early versions.<ref name="Nicolle194">Nicolle (1995) p. 194</ref> Saltpetre (also called "Chinese salt") was added to the mixture in the Islamic world, and China developed a dry saltpetre mixture in the 12th century, which eventually became [[gunpowder]].<ref name="2Nicolle194"/><ref>Nicolle (1995), p. 295</ref> ====Hot oil==== Oil of various kinds could be heated to high temperatures and poured over enemy,<ref name="Nossov79"/> although, since it was extremely expensive, its use was limited, both in frequency and quantity.<ref name="Kaufmann61">Kaufmann & Kaufmann, p. 61</ref><ref name="Nicolle208"/> Moreover, it could be dangerous and volatile. Since the smoke point of oil is lower than its boiling point, the oil was only heated and not boiled. Pouring-oil was used in a number of historic battles, and [[Josephus]] described its use at [[Jotapata]] in AD 67, saying "the oil did easily run down the whole body from head to foot, under their entire armour, and fed upon their flesh like flame itself."<ref name="NossovQ79"/> Oil was usually used to create incendiary devices. The Roman-Byzantine armies of the 6th century created "fire-pots", oil-based incendiary weapons which could be launched by hand or with [[ballistae]].<ref name=Nicolle49">Nicolle (1995), p. 49</ref> During the siege at [[Montreuil-Bellay|Montreuil-en-Bellay]] in 1147, a mixture of oils from nuts, [[cannabis]] and flax, was heated in iron containers, launched by [[mangonel]], and burst into flames on impact.<ref>Nossov, pp 200–201</ref> The [[Chinese]] made early [[grenade]]s out of oil-soaked [[hemp]] and [[cotton]], which were ignited and thrown by [[mangonel]]s.<ref name=2Nicolle205">Nicolle (1996), p. 205</ref> Another use of oil can be seen in the naval battle of [[Battle of La Rochelle|La Rochelle]] during the [[Hundred Years' War]]; the [[Castile (historical region)|Castilians]] sprayed oil on the decks of English ships then ignited it by shooting flaming arrows down.<ref name="Bennett248">Bennett et al, p. 248</ref> <div style="float:right; width: 250px; background: #F9F9F9; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding:5px; margin:5px"> <span style="font-size:90%; text-align:center"> "They built copper and iron shields, put sand into them, and heated them over hot fire so the sand became red-hot. By means of some mechanism they threw this sand at those who had fought bravest and subjected their victims to most severe suffering. The sand penetrated through the armour into the shirts, burned the body, and it could not be helped [...] they died, going mad with horrible pain, in sufferings piteous and unquenchable." <small> [[Diodorus Siculus]], on the 4th century BC [[Siege of Tyre]].<ref name="NossovQ79">quoted in Nossov, p. 79</ref></small> </span> </div> ====Water, sand and other heated missiles==== Hot oil was considerably less common than boiling water or heated sand, which were cheap and extremely effective; even "dust from the street" could be used. These would penetrate armour and cause terrible burns.<ref name="Nossov79">Nossov, p. 79</ref> Sand, especially, could work its way through very small gaps in armour.<ref name="Nicolle208"/> The [[Phoenicians]] at the [[Siege of Tyre]] in 332 BC dropped burning sand down on the attacking [[Greece|Greeks]], which got in behind the armour and burned the flesh.<ref>Cartledge, p. 150</ref> Such heated missiles have also been used in mining situations; the 1st century Roman writer [[Vitruvius]] describes a counter-mine dug above the attackers' gallery by defenders at the siege of [[Apollonia]]. Piercing the floor between the mines, the Apollonian defenders poured down boiling water, hot sand and hot pitch onto the heads of their enemy.<ref name="Nossov131">Nossov, p. 131</ref> Other mixtures were more innovative; the defenders at [[Chester]] in 918 boiled a mixture of water and [[ale]] in copper tubs and poured it over the Viking besiegers, causing their skin to peel off.<ref name="Nossov80">Nossov, p. 80</ref> When [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I Babarossa]] besieged [[Crema, Italy]] in the 12th century, the defenders threw red-hot iron objects down on them.<ref name="Nossov80"/> ====Pitch, tar and resin==== Burning pitch was used on occasion; the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] were known to fire containers of burning tar during sieges using catapults and trebuchets.<ref name="Carey119">Carey et al, p. 119</ref> Wheels could be covered in pitch, set alight and rolled along; this technique was commonly used during the Crusades.<ref name="Nossov202">Nossov, p. 202</ref> The besieged [[Carthaginian]]s in [[Motya]], 398 BC, set alight the siege engines of the attacking [[Syracuse|Syracusan]] forces under [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] by dropping burning charred logs and resin-soaked [[oakum]]; however, the Syracusans were able to put out the fires.<ref name="Nossov36">Nossov, p. 36</ref> Pitch was a base ingredient in many incendiary devices throughout the period. The [[Boeotia]]ns developed a fire machine, which they used against the [[Athens|Athenian]] wooden fortifications during the [[Battle of Delium]] in 424 BC. A cauldron of burning coals, pitch and sulfur was suspended at one end of a hollowed-out log and [[bellows]] were fixed to the other end.<ref>Nossov, p. 32</ref> A similar mixture was used 900 years later by the Scots, when they dropped bales of wood, tar and sulfur by crane onto the English "sow" (a large protective shield covering the battering ram) at the 1319 siege of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]].<ref name="Prestwich291"/> ====Animal products==== At the 1215 siege of [[Rochester Castle]], [[John of England|King John]] ordered the [[lard|fat]] from 40 pigs be used to set fire to the new [[Mining (military)|mines]] beneath the keep, which caused it to collapse, a cheap and effective technique he used in preference to the more complicated mixture of sulfur, [[tallow]], [[natural gum|gum]], pitch and [[mercury (element)|quicksilver]] he had used in France the previous year.<ref>Matarasso, pp. 100–1</ref> Animal fat was not uncommon as an accelerant; in the 13th century French sortie-parties would often be equipped with animal fat, straw and flax to use as fuel when setting fires amongst enemy siege engines.<ref>Nicolle (2005), p. 152</ref> There were some intriguing uses of animal products; during the [[Siege of Paris (885-886)|Siege of Paris]] in 886 AD, the Franks dropped bucket-loads of a hot mixture of pitch (or oil), wax and fish on the attacking Vikings; the mixture got under the armour and stuck to the skin.<ref>Bennett et al, pp. 180, 222</ref> [[Konrad Kyeser]]'s '' Bellifortis'' of 1405 describes a poisonous mixture of sulfur, tar and horses' hooves.<ref name="Nossov202"/> Other incendiary ingredients included egg yolks, and pigeon and sheep droppings.<ref name="Nossov193">Nossov, p. 193</ref> Live insects were also used, to sting the enemy. 4th century BC writer [[Aeneas Tacticus]] suggested defenders should let wasps and bees into enemy mines,<ref name="Nossov131"> and jars of [[scorpion]]s were sometimes fired during early bombardment in naval battles.<ref name="Bennett212">Bennett et al, p. 212</ref> In 189 BC [[Ambracia]] was besieged by the Romans, who dug mines under the walls. The defenders filled a clay jar with chicken feathers, which they then lit, using bellows to blow the acrid smoke down the tunnel; unable to approach the pot due to defensive spears, the Romans were forced to abandon their workings.<ref name="Nossov131">Nossov, p. 131</ref> ====Quicklime, sulfur and smoke==== The 15th-century engineer [[Taccola]] recommended [[Calcium oxide|quicklime]],<ref name="Nossov79"/> although its use went back to ancient times, and might well have been a component of Greek fire.<ref name="Nossov200">Nossov, p. 200</ref> Quicklime reacts violently with water, and can cause blindness and burns.<ref name="Nossov200"/> While quicklime was used in some naval battles,<ref name="Bennett212">Bennett et al, p. 212</ref> it does not appear to have been standard issue on board ships, due to the danger of the quicklime blowing back and burning the user.<ref name="Bennett241">Bennett et al, p. 241</ref> Other substances smoked rather than flamed. Sacks of burning sulfur were effective at clearing enemy mines due to the toxic smoke produced.<ref name="Nicolle208">Nicolle (1995), p. 208</ref> Any smoke could be used in small confines; the Greek military writer Aeneas Tacticus recommended burning wood and straw to drive out enemy sappers by the smoke.<ref name="Nossov131"/> ==Gunpowder and cannon== [[Image:Siege orleans.jpg|left|thumb|280px|[[Siege of Orleans]] in 1428 (Vigiles de Charles VII, 15th century)]] {{main|History of gunpowder|History of cannon|Cannon in the Middle Ages}} The early experiments in adding saltpetre (potassium nitrate) to incendiary mixtures eventually led to the development of gunpowder. Saltpetre (also known as "Chinese salt") was first known in China in the 11th century, and was added to Arabic "naft" in the 12th century, whence its use spread into Western Europe.<ref name="2Nicolle294">Nicolle (1996), p. 294</ref> In a separate development in Europe, [[Roger Bacon]] invented gunpowder in the mid 13th century, although the mixture was not very effective.<ref name="Nossov205">Nossov, p. 205</ref><ref name="Nicolle296">Nicolle (1995), p. 296</ref> The composition of gunpowder varied throughout the period, and did not settle into the current ratios of saltpetre, sulfur and coal until the 17th century.<ref name="Nossov205"/> Gunpowder's first use was in petroleum-based incendiary mixtures.<ref name="Nicolle294">Nicolle (1995), p. 294</ref> Initially, gunpowder mixtures were utilised through traditional engines and throwing mechanisms; containers and grenades were thrown by mangonels and trebuchets, and explosive rockets and arrows were developed, along with gunpowder flamethrowers.<ref>Nicolle (1996), pp. 294–5</ref> The first mention of cannon is in a document from 1324, when "iron bullets and cannon made of metal" were commissioned. In a separate document that year there appeared an illustration of the ''[[pot-de-fer]]'' – a barrel or 'pot' which fired a large arrow or bolt.<ref>Nossov, pp. 205–7</ref> Cannon were first used by the Muslims at [[Alicante]] in 1331, or [[Algeciras]] in 1343.<ref name="Nossov209">Nossov, p. 209</ref> Bamboo handguns, operated with gunpowder, had been developed by the Chinese in the 13th century, but their development of metal cannons occurred during mid-late 14th century.<ref name="2Nicolle296">Nicolle (1996), p. 296</ref> From then onwards, the spread and development of the weapons was rapid,<ref name="Nossov209"/> with widespread use by the end of the 14th century.<ref name="Nicolle206">Nicolle (1995), p. 206</ref> However, early cannon were not very effective, the main benefits being psychological, frightening men and horses.<ref name="Nossov209"/> Short barrelled, large-calibre [[Bombard (weapon)|"bombards"]] were used up until the late 15th century in Europe, during which period they grew increasingly larger.<ref>Nossov, pp. 209–10</ref> In the mid-15th century, [[mortar]]s also appeared.<ref name=Nossov216">Nossov, p. 216</ref> Various smaller weapons also existed, including the ''serpentine'', ''ribaudequin'' and ''cropaudin''.<ref name="Nicolle297">Nicolle (1995), p. 297</ref> The powder was of poor quality and was used in small quantities – to prevent explosion of the barrel – so the effective range of these cannon was rarely more than 200–250m.<ref name="Nossov213">Nossov, p. 213</ref> The barrels of the cannon were [[Forging|forged]] or [[casting|cast]], and each gun generally differed in calibre and length.<ref>Nossov, pp. 217–8</ref> Early powder resembled a paste, and tended to burn slowly.<ref name="Nossov220">Nossov, p. 220</ref> Its composition varied in different geographical areas, the powder of Europe being quite different to that used in the East.<ref name="Nossov222">Nossov, p. 222</ref> The projectiles used were generally stone balls for bombards and mortars. Forged iron balls were used in smaller-calibre cannon, and coated with lead to make them smooth. From the 15th century, cast iron balls were used, which caused great destruction. As they were denser than stone, even small balls could be destructive. Thus, cannon became smaller in calibre, and longer-barrels increased the range.<ref name="Nossov222"/> ==Later development== The use of incendiary devices had decreased by the 14th century, perhaps due to the increasingly economic realities of war where it became increasingly important that captured castles and towns were undamaged.<ref name="Nicolle208"/> Moreover, fewer wooden engines and structures were employed in the battlefield after the late 13th century, perhaps because of the prior success of the incendiary weapons at destroying them.<ref name=""Nicolle178">Nicolle (1996), p. 178</ref> While the incidence of use dropped, towards the latter end of the Middle Ages the incendiary devices became more sophisticated, and the principle of wielding fire with sword remained present throughout the [[Early modern period|Early Modern]] and [[Modern times|Modern]] periods; improving technology merely allowed the process to become more efficient. [[Image:Hamburg after the 1943 bombing.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Burned-out buildings in [[Hamburg]] after the 1943 [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|Allied incendiary attacks]].]] ====The principle of fire and sword==== Fire itself remained a part of warfare. In his reminisces of the [[Peninsular War]] (1807–1814), a British soldier recorded that the French soldiers would "regularly burn to the ground every place they pass through. In following them we find each town and village a heap of smoking ruins."<ref>quoted in Bluth, p. 135</ref> During [[World War I]], [[Leuven]], in [[Belgium]] was "looted and burned in medieval fashion",<ref>Grant, p. 270</ref> when [[Germany|German]] soldiers set fire to much of the town, destroying the library and other cultural buildings, and causing outrage around the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Gibson |first= Craig |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2008 |month= |title= The culture of destruction in the First World War |journal=Times Literary Supplement |volume= |issue= January 30, 2008 |pages= |id= |url= http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article3277792.ece |accessdate= 2008-03-08 |quote= }}</ref> Yet the tactic was not dispensed with. In [[World War II]], [[firebombing]] with [[Incendiary device|incendiary bombs]] was carried out by the Germans against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] during [[the Blitz]], and by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] against Germany and [[Japan]]. After one [[Bombing of Tokyo in World War II|heavy raid on Tokyo]] in March 1945, the resulting [[firestorm]]s destroyed a quarter of the predominately wooden buildings.<ref>Grant, p. 329</ref> Much as the Ancient Greeks before them, it was a [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategy of devastation]]. Fire has continued to be used as a destructive measure in warfare. During the 1991–1992 [[Gulf War]], [[Iraq]] set fire to three-quarters of [[Kuwait]]'s [[oil well]]s.<ref>Grant, p. 351</ref> Fire remained an extremely successful weapon. During naval warfare of the [[Napoleonic war]]s, "the one thing most likely to destroy a ship was fire".<ref name="Adkins131">Adkins, p. 131</ref> Sometimes the fires were merely a side effect of weapon technology. Early [[firearms]] proved incendiary in their use and could start fires. During the Peninsular War, both [[Battle of Talavera|Talavera]] and [[Battle of Salamanca|Salamanca]] battlefields were wracked by tremendous grassfires, first started by the guns.<ref>Bryant, p. 36</ref> At the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], 1805, the French ship ''Achille'' caught fire when musket-flashes from her own men's guns set fire to the tar and grease on the sail rigging; the ship eventually exploded.<ref name="Adkins131"/> [[Smoke screen]]s have continued to be used by attackers and defenders as a means of sowing confusion and hiding movements. During naval battles in the 18–19th centuries, shots were sometimes fired early so a defensive screen was erected before the ships converged, to spoil the aim of the enemy.<ref>Adkins, p. 107</ref> ====Development and continued use of weapons==== The major development of weapons in the early modern and modern periods occurred with firearms, which became progressively more efficient. Gunpowder settled into its standard ratio in the 17th century,<ref name="Nossov205"/> and general [[ballistics|ballistic]] technology improved. Initially, iron round shot replaced the earlier stone balls for cannon then, latterly, different types of shot were invented. For short range use against personnel, [[canister shot|canister]] and the smaller naval [[grapeshot]] were popular during the 19th century; it comprised smaller iron or lead pellets contained within a case or bag, which scattered on explosion.<ref name="Grant156">Grant, p. 156</ref> In 1784, [[Henry Shrapnel|Lt Henry Shrapnel]] invented a spherical [[case-shot]], which was later [[shrapnel|named after him]]. The case was a hollow iron sphere which was filled with [[musket ball]]s and was detonated by a gunpowder charge.<ref name="Bluth140"/> Shot fired from cannon could be so hot that it scorched or set fire to materials that it brushed.<ref name="Adkins106">Adkins, p. 106</ref> [[Image:Ronson flame tank Iwo Jima.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A [[flame tank]] at [[Iwo Jima]], [[WWII]].]] The incendiary liquids of the ancient and medieval periods were also developed, and have their modern equivalents. World War I saw the development of the [[flamethrower]], a modern version of the Byzantine siphons, which used gas under pressure to squirt a mixture of inflammable oil and petrol, ignited by a burning taper.<ref>Haythornthwaite, p. 73</ref> Technology improved throughout the twentieth century, and the latter half saw the development and use of [[napalm]], an incendiary liquid formed in part from [[naphtha]], which was the main ingredient of the Arabic "naft". Flames continued to be used for defensive light until artificial lights were developed. At the [[Battle of Badajoz (1812)|Siege of Badajoz]] in 1812, the French defenders flung down burning "carcasses" of straw so that the attacking British might be seen. Like the sieges of old, the British were met by incendiary weapons, but now these took the form of explosive [[grenade]]s, [[Land mine|mines]] and [[gunpowder|powder]] barrels as well as the enemy's guns.<ref>Bryant, p. 23</ref> Specific weapons from the ancient and medieval periods continued to develop, and many have modern equivalents. Rocket technology, originally trialled by the Mongols, Indians and the Chinese, amongst others, was improved by the 19th century; one example was the incendiary [[Congreve rocket]], which had a tail, a fuse, and a powder charge (saltpetre, sulfur and carbon) inside a hollow shell.<ref name="Bluth140">Bluth, p. 140</ref> Grenades continued to develop, although still retaining some aspects of their medieval equivalents. The grenades carried on board [[Royal Navy]] ships in the late 18th and early 19th century were constructed from hollow cast iron, filled with gunpowder; the fuse was a hollow wooden tube filled with combustible material.<ref name="Adkins131"/> During World War I, grenades were still occasionally launched by [[ballista]]e.<ref>Nossov, pp. 184–5</ref> The use of some weapons continued with little change. The [[Korea]]ns used fire arrows against the Japanese at the [[Battle of Hansan Island]] in 1592.<ref>Grant, p. 176</ref> At [[Battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]], in 1805, the British ship ''[[HMS Tonnant (1798)|Tonnant]]'' shot [[Wadding|wads]] covered in sulfur, which set fire to the ''[[French ship Algésiras (1804)|Algésiras]]''.<ref>Adkins, p. 185</ref> Fireships were used in later periods. In 1588, the English sent fireships loaded with gunpowder, pitch and tar amongst the anchored [[Spanish Armada]]; the Spanish fleet broke formation, setting them up for the later battle.<ref>Grant, p. 148</ref> The last battle under sail was the [[Battle of Navarino]] (1827), part of the [[Greek War of Independence]], during which fireships were utilised by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]].<ref>Ortzen, p. 80</ref> [[Chemical warfare]] had been experimented with during the early period with sulfur, quicklime (calcium oxide), and others, and developments continued. World War I saw a vast number of gases used, including the extremely effective [[sulfur mustard]] (mustard gas).<ref>Haythornthwaite, pp. 90–92</ref> <!--dung: guano and phosphorus --> ==See also== * [[Scorched earth]] * [[Boiling to death]] ==Notes== {{Reflist|3}} ==References== * Adkins, Roy; ''Trafalgar: The Biography of a Battle'', UK: Little, Brown, 2004, ISBN 0316715110 * Bennet, Matthew; [[Jim Bradbury|Bradbury, Jim]]; [[Kelly DeVries|DeVries, Kelly]]; Dickie, Iain; Jestice, Phyllis G. ''Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World: AD 500-AD 1500'', London: Amber Books, 2005, ISBN 1-86227-299-9 * Bluth, BJ; ''Marching with Sharpe'', UK: HarperCollins, 2001, ISBN 0004145372 * [[Jim Bradbury|Bradbury, Jim]]; ''The Medieval Siege'', UK: Boydell & Brewer, 1992, ISBN 0851153577 * Bradbury, Jim; ''The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare'', London: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0415221269 * [[Arthur Bryant|Bryant, Arthur]]; ''The Age of Elegance: 1812–1822'', London: Collins, 1950 * Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua B; Cairns, John. ''Warfare in the Medieval World'', UK: Pen & Sword Military, 2006, ISBN 1844153398 * Cartledge, Paul; ''Alexander the Great: The Hunt for a New Past'', London: Macmillan, 2004, ISBN 1405032928 * Diaz de Gamez, Gutierre; ''The Unconquered Knight: a Chronicle of the Deeds of Don Pero Nino, Count of Buelna'', written 1431–49, translated by Joan Evans, UK: The Boydell Press, 2004 ISBN 1843831015 * Grant, R.G.; ''Battle: a Visual Journey Through 5000 Years of Combat'', London: Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2005, ISBN 1405311002 * [[Philip Haythornthwaite|Haythornthwaite, Philip J.]]; ''The World War One Source Book'', London: Cassell, 1992, ISBN 1854091026 * Kaufmann, J.E.; Kaufmann, H.W.; ''The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages'', UK: Greenhill Books, 2001, ISBN 1853674559 * Matarasso, François; ''The English Castle'', UK: Cassell, 1995. Republished 2000, Caxton Editions, ISBN 1840672307 * [[David Nicolle|Nicolle, David]]; ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Christian Europe and its Neighbours'', [[Brockhampton Press]], 1996, ISBN 1860198619 * Nicolle, David; ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom.'' UK: Brockhampton Press, 1995, ISBN 1-86019-889-9 * Nossov, Konstantin; ''Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons'', UK: Spellmount Ltd, 2006, ISBN 186227343X * Ortzen, Len; ''Guns at Sea: The World's Great Naval Battles'', London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976, ISBN 0297771620 * [[Michael Prestwich|Prestwich, Michael]]. ''Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-300-07663-0 * Traquir, Peter; ''Freedom's Sword: Scotland's Wars of Independence'', London: HarperCollins 1998, ISBN 0004720792 [[Category:Primitive weapons]] [[Category:Fortification weapons]] [[Category:Anti-personnel weapons]] [[Category:Medieval weapons]] [[Category:Incendiary weapons]] [[Category:Siege equipment]] [[Category:Fire]] [[Category:Ancient weapons]] [[sr:??????? ???]]