Educational psychology 10332 221345673 2008-06-24T03:11:49Z 58.169.140.225 /* Applications in instructional design and technology */ '''Educational psychology''' is the study of how [[human]]s learn in [[education]]al settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of [[school]]s as [[organization]]s. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[school psychologist]]s. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as [[gifted]] children and those subject to specific [[disabilities]]. {{Psychology (sidebar)}} Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]] and also between [[Engineering]] and [[Physics]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks.<ref name=lucas>Lucas, J. L., Blazek, M. A., & Raley, A. B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. ''Educational Psychology, 25'', 347-351.</ref> ==Social, moral and cognitive development== [[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[abacus]] provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.]] To understand the characteristics of learners in [[child]]hood, [[adolescence]], [[adulthood]], and [[old age]], educational psychology develops and applies theories of human [[developmental psychology|development]]. Often cast as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities ([[cognition]]), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge. For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of [[Cognitive Development|Jean Piaget's theory of development]], according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.<ref name=woolfolk>Woolfolk, A. E., Winne, P. H., & Perry, N. E. (2006). Educational Psychology (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson.</ref> Piaget proposed a developmental theory of [[moral reasoning]] in which children progress from a naive understanding of [[morality]] based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by [[Lawrence Kohlberg|Kohlberg]] into a [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stage theory of moral development]]. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as [[Modelling (psychology)|modeling]] (as described by the [[social cognitive theory of morality]]) are required to explain [[bullying]]. [[Rudolf Steiner]]'s model of [[child development]] interrelates physical, emotional, cognitive, and moral development<ref name="uwe.ac.uk_RR645_1.5_Findings">Woods, Ashley and Woods, [http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR645.pdf ''Steiner Schools in England'', University of West of England, Bristol: Research Report RR645], section 1.5, "Findings from the survey and case studies"</ref> in developmental stages similar to those later described by [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]].<ref>Carrie Y. Nordlund, "Art Experiences in Waldorf Education", Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, May 2006</ref> Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of [[epistemological]] beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms of gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity.<ref name=cano>Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. ''British Journal of Educational Psychology'', 75, 203-221.</ref> ==Individual differences and disabilities== [[Image:FiguralRelation.png|right|thumb|250px|An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test.]] Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], [[creativity]], [[cognitive style]], [[motivation]], and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[learning disability]], [[dyslexia]], and [[speech disorder]]. Less common disabilities include [[mental retardation]], [[hearing impairment]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and [[blindness]]. Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since [[Plato]], intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single, scalar [[factor analysis|factor]] ([[Charles Spearman|Spearman's]] [[General intelligence factor|general intelligence)]], multiple factors (as in [[Robert Sternberg|Sternberg's]] [[triarchic theory of intelligence]] and [[Howard Gardner|Gardner's]] [[theory of multiple intelligences]]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] and the [[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC]] are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as [[gifted]] are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children with identified deficits may be provided with enhanced education in specific skills such as [[phonological awareness]]. == Learning and cognition == Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery.<ref name=semb>Semb, G. B., & Ellis, J. A. (1994). Knowledge taught in schools: What is remembered? ''Review of Educational Research'', 64, 253-286.</ref> One study found that university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed, when tested 10 years later, average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20%.<ref name=ellis>Ellis, J. A., Semb, G. B., & Cole, B. (1998). Very long-term memory for information taught in school. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23'', 419-433.</ref> There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in school [[transfer of learning|transfers]] to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings, and how such transfer occurs.<ref name=perkins1>Perkins, D. N., & [[Gavriel Salomon|Salomon, G.]] (1992). [http://learnweb.harvard.edu/alps/thinking/docs/traencyn.htm Transfer of learning]. ''International Encyclopedia of Education'' (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.</ref> Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of ''far transfer'' is scarce,<ref name=perkins2> Perkins, D. N., & Grotzer, T. A. (1997). Teaching intelligence. ''American Psychologist, 52'', 1125-1133.</ref><ref name=detterman>Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), ''Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction'' (pp. 1-24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.</ref> while others claim there is abundant evidence of far transfer in specific domains.<ref name=halpern>[[Diane F. Halpern|Halpern, D. F.]] (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains. ''American Psychologist, 53'', 449-455. </ref> Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include [[behaviorism]], [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], [[social cognitive theory]], and [[constructivism (pedagogical)|constructivism]]. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives. ===Behavioral perspective=== [[Applied Behavior Analysis|Applied behavior analysis]], a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of [[operant conditioning]], is effective in a range of educational settings.<ref name=Alberto>Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2003). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Prentice-Hall-Merrill.</ref> For example, teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangeable for sundry items.<ref name=mcgoey>McGoey, K. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (2000). Token reinforcement and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ''School Psychology Quarterly, 15'', 330-343.</ref><ref name=theodore>Theodore, L. A., Bray, M. A., Kehle, T. J., & Jenson, W. R. (2001). Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. ''Journal of School Psychology, 39'', 267-277.</ref> Despite the demonstrated efficacy of awards in changing behavior, their use in education has been criticized by proponents of [[Self-Determination Theory|self-determination theory]], who claim that praise and other rewards undermine [[intrinsic motivation]]. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior.<ref name=lepper>[[Mark Lepper|Lepper, M. R.]], Greene, D. & [[Richard E. Nisbett|Nisbett, R. E.]] (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28'', 129-137.</ref> But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation.<ref name=cameron>Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K. M., & Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 97'', 641-655.</ref><ref> Pierce, W. D. & Cameron, J. (2002). A summary of the effects of reward contingencies on interest and performance. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', 3, 222-226.</ref> Many effective therapies have been based on the principles of Applied Behavior Analysis, including [[Pivotal Response Therapy]] which is used to treat Autism Spectrum Disorders. ===Cognitive perspective=== Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as [[trait theory|traits]], [[beliefs]], [[memory|memories]], [[motivation]]s and [[emotions]]. Cognitive theories posit memory structures that are thought to determine how information is [[perception|perceived]], [[information processing|processed]], stored, [[information retrieval|retrieved]] and [[forgetting|forgotten]]. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by [[Allan Paivio's]] [[dual coding theory]]. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and [[cognitive load]] theory to explain how people learn from [[multimedia]] presentations.<ref name=Mayer>[[Richard Mayer|Mayer, R. E.]] (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[Image:KrugDavisGlover1990.png|right|thumb|250px|Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis and Glover<ref name=krug>Krug, D., Davis, T. B., Glover, J. A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 82'', 366-371.</ref> demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).]] The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education.<ref name=dempster>Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. ''Educational Psychology Review, 1'', 309-330.</ref> For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (see figure).<ref name=krug/> Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using [[mnemonics]] for immediate and delayed retention of information.<ref name=carney> Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again! ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', 25, 499-508.</ref> [[Problem solving]], regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a [[Schema (psychology)|schema]] retrieved from long term memory. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.<ref name=kalyuga>Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & [[John Sweller|Sweller, J.]] (2001). When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 93'', 579-588.</ref> The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of [[analogy|analogical]] thinking to problem solving. === Social cognitive perspective === {{main|Social cognitive theory}} Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist [[Albert Bandura]]. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called ''social learning theory'', Bandura emphasized the process of [[observational learning]] in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's [[self-efficacy]]. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior. An [[experiment]] by Schunk and Hanson,<ref name=schunk>Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement behavior. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 77'', 313-322.</ref> that studied grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning [[subtraction]], illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then participated in the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the [[hypothesis]] that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy. Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of [[self-regulated learning]] (SRL) and [[metacognition]]. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding. Research has indicated that learners' who are better at goal setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and [[self-efficacy]];<ref name=zimmerman1> [[Barry Zimmerman|Zimmerman, B. J.]] (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.) ''Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice'' (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford.</ref> and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement.<ref name=hattie>Hattie, J., [[John B. Biggs|Biggs, J.]], & Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. ''Review of Educational Research, 66'', 99-136.</ref> ===Constructivist perspective=== {{main|Constructivism (learning theory)}} [[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]] refers to a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from [[Social Constructivism (Learning Theory)|social constructivism]]. A dominant influence on the latter type is [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, [[Jerome Bruner]] and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized. Vygotsky's version of [[Constructivist epistemology|constructivist]] theory has led to the view that behavior, skills, attitudes and beliefs are inherently [[Situated cognition|situated]], that is, bound to a specific sociocultural setting. According to this view, the learner is enculturated through social interactions within a [[community of practice]]. The social constructivist view of learning has spawned approaches to teaching and learning such as [[cognitive apprenticeship]], in which the tacit components of a complex skill are made explicit through conversational interactions occurring between expert and novice in the setting in which the skill is embedded.<ref name=collins>Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick, (Ed.), ''Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser''. Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 453-494.</ref> ==Motivation== [[Motivation]] is an internal state that activates, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the [[Volition (psychology)|volition]] or [[Will (philosophy)|will]] that students bring to a task, their level of interest and [[intrinsic motivation]], the personally held [[Goal setting|goals]] that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. A form of [[attribution theory]] developed by [[Bernard Weiner]]<ref name=weiner>[[Bernard Weiner|Weiner, B.]] (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. ''Educational Psychology Review, 12'', 1-14.</ref> describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations. For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of [[shame]] and [[embarrassment]] and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of [[guilt]] and consequently increase effort and show improved performance. Motivational theories also explain how [[Goal Theory|learners' goals]] affect the way that they engage with academic tasks.<ref name=elliot>Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. ''Educational Psychologist, 34'', 169–189.</ref> Those who have ''mastery goals'' strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have ''performance approach goals'' strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have ''performance avoidance'' goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, [[creativity]] and [[intrinsic motivation]]. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor [[attention|concentration]] while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and [[anxiety#Test anxiety|test anxiety]]. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing. ==Research methodology== The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, and psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both [[design of experiments|research design]] and [[data analysis]]. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have [[internal validity|internal]], [[external validity|external]] and [[ecological validity]]. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both [[quantitative research|quantitative]] and [[qualitative research|qualitative]] methods. ===Quantitative methods=== [[Image:The Normal Distribution.svg|right|thumb|250px|Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a [[normal distribution]].]] Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of [[factor analysis]] by [[Charles Spearman]]. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many [[Multivariate statistics|multivariate statistical methods]] used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores.<ref name=thompson>Thompson, B. (2004). ''Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications''. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.</ref> Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominently in educational psychology journals. Because educational [[assessment]] is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of [[psychometrics]]. For example, [[Cronbach's alpha|alpha]], the widely used measure of test [[Reliability (statistics)|reliability]] was developed by educational psychologist [[Lee Cronbach]]. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on [[classical test theory]], [[item response theory]] and [[Rasch model]]s are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses. [[Meta-analysis]], the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative [[literature review]], is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, [[effect size]]s that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best [[estimate]] of the effect of treatment.<ref name=lipsey>Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). ''Practical meta-analysis.'' London: Sage.</ref> Several decades after [[Karl Pearson|Pearson]]'s work with early versions of meta-analysis, [[Gene V. Glass|Glass]]<ref name=glass>[[Gene V. Glass|Glass, G. V.]] (1976). Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. ''Educational Researcher, 5'', 3-8.</ref> published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research. Other quantitative research issues associated with educational psychology include the use of nested research designs (e.g., a student nested within a classroom, which is nested within a school, which is nested within a district, etc.) and the use of longitudinal statistical models to measure change. ===Qualitative methods=== Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from [[anthropology]], [[sociology]] or [[sociolinguistics]]. For example, the anthropological method of [[ethnography]] has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a [[Participant observation|participant observer]] or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as [[grounded theory]]. [[Triangulation (social science)|Triangulation]], the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research. [[Case study|Case studies]] are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study,<ref name=everall>Everall, R. D., Bostik, K. E. & Paulson, B. L. (2005). I'm sick of being me: Developmental themes in a suicidal adolescent. ''Adolescence, 40'', 693-708.</ref> researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured [[interview]] with a 20-year old woman who had a history of [[Teenage suicide|suicidal]] thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, [[identity formation]] and [[Attachment theory|social attachment]] in ending her suicidal thinking. Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, [[focus group]]s, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is [[protocol analysis]].<ref name=ericsson>Ericsson, K. A., & [[Herbert Simon|Simon, H.]] (1993). ''Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data'' (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> In this method the research participant is asked to [[think aloud protocol|''think aloud'']] while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis<ref name=chi>Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. ''Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6'', 271-315.</ref> does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their [[mental model]] or [[misconception]]s (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. [[Conversation analysis]] and [[discourse analysis]], sociolinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning.<ref name=pea>[[Roy Pea|Pea, R. D.]] (1993). Learning scientific concepts through material and social activities: Conversational analysis meets conceptual change. ''Educational Psychologist, 28'', 265-277.</ref> Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and [[concept maps]], video-recorded interactions, and computer log records. ==Applications in instructional design and technology== [[Image:BloomsCognitiveDomain.svg|right|thumb|250px|[[Taxonomy of education objectives|Bloom's taxonomy]] of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain<ref name=Anderson>Anderson, L. W., & [[David Krathwohl|Krathwohl, D. R.]] (2001). ''A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives''. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman.</ref>]] [[Instructional design]], the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a [[Taxonomy of education objectives|taxonomy of educational objectives]] created by [[Benjamin Bloom]] and colleagues.<ref name=Anderson /> Bloom also researched [[mastery learning]], an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom<ref name=Bloom>[[Benjamin Bloom|Bloom, B. S.]] (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. ''Educational Researcher, 13''(6),4–16.</ref> discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally achieved in classroom instruction. [[Robert M. Gagné|Gagné]], another psychologist, had earlier developed an influential method of [[task analysis]] in which a terminal learning goal is expanded into a hierarchy of learning objectives<ref name=gronlund>Gronlund, N. E. (2000). ''How to write and use instructional objectives'' (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Merrill.</ref> connected by prerequisite relations. * [[Intelligent tutoring system]] * [[Educational technology]] * [[John R. Anderson]] * [[Cognitive tutor]] * [[Cooperative learning]] * [[Collaborative learning]] * [[problem-based learning]] * [[Computer Supported Cooperative Learning|Computer supported collaborative learning]] * [[William Winn]] * [[constructive alignment]] ==Applications in teaching== [[Image:FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png|right|thumb|250px|A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families.<ref name=finn>Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 97'', 214-233.</ref>]] Research on [[classroom management]] and [[pedagogy]] is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems.<ref name=emmer>Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology with implications for teacher education. ''Educational Psychologist, 36'', 103-112.</ref> Introductory educational psychology is a commonly required area of study in most North American teacher education programs. When taught in that context, its content varies, but it typically emphasizes learning theories (especially cognitively oriented ones), issues about motivation, assessment of students' learning, and classroom management. A developing [[b:Contemporary Educational Psychology|Wikibook about educational psychology]] gives more detail about the educational psychology topics that are typically presented in preservice teacher education. *[[Special education]] *[[Lesson plan]] *[[Wikibooks:Contemporary Educational Psychology|More about applications to classroom teaching]] ==History== Educational psychology cannot claim priority in the systematic analysis of educational processes. [[philosophy of education|Philosophers of education]] such as [[Democritus]], [[Quintilian]], [[Vives]] and [[Comenius]], had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the [[History of psychology|beginnings of psychology]] in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the [[scientific methods]] of observation and experimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. In his famous series of lectures ''Talks to Teachers on Psychology'', published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, the pioneering American psychologist [[William James]] commented that: {{cquote|Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality.<ref name=james>[[William James|James, W.]] (1983). ''Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1899)</ref>}} According to [[David Berliner|Berliner]]<ref name=berliner>[[David Berliner|Berliner, D. C.]] (1993). [http://courses.ed.asu.edu/berliner/readings//journey.htm The 100-year journey of educational psychology: From interest to disdain to respect for practice]. In T. K. Fagan & G. R. VandenBos (Eds). ''Exploring applied psychology: Origins and critical analysis''. Washington DC: American Psychology Association.</ref> educational psychology theorists' attitude to the world of educational practice has shifted from initial interest to disdain, and eventually to respect. * [[Charles Hubbard Judd]] In 1912, Thorndike, who developed the theory of [[instrumental conditioning]], presaged later work on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning: {{cquote|If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.<ref name=thorndike>[[Edward Thorndike|Thorndike, E. L.]] (1912). ''Education: A first book''. New York: MacMillan.</ref>}} ===Influential educational psychologists and theorists=== The following persons were selected and featured in a recent biographical history of educational psychology<ref name=zimmerman2>[[Barry Zimmerman|Zimmerman, B. J.]], & [[Dale Schunk|Schunk, D. H.]] (Eds.)(2003). ''Educational psychology: A century of contributions''. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum.</ref> as having made significant contributions to the field: *[[Albert Bandura]] 1925- *[[Alfred Binet]] 1857-1911 *[[Benjamin Bloom]] 1913-1999 *[[Ann Brown]] 1943-1999 *[[Jerome Bruner]] 1915- *[[Lee Cronbach]] 1916-2001 *[[John Dewey]] 1859-1952 *[[Nathaniel Gage]] 1917- *[[Robert M. Gagné|Robert Gagné]] 1916-2002 *[[William James]] 1842-1910 *[[Maria Montessori]] 1870-1952 *[[Jean Piaget]] 1896-1980 *[[Herbert Simon]] 1916–2001 *[[B.F. Skinner|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]] 1904-1990 *[[Charles Spearman]] 1863-1945 *[[Lewis Terman]] 1877-1956 *[[Edward L. Thorndike]] 1874-1949 *[[Lev Vygotsky|Lev Semenovich Vygotsky]] 1896-1934 ==Careers in educational psychology== ===Education and training=== {{globalize}} A person may be considered an educational psychologist after completing a graduate [[academic degree|degree]] in educational psychology or a closely related field. Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Educational psychologists work in a variety of settings. Some work in university settings where they carry out research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning and education. Educational psychologists may also work as consultants in designing and creating educational materials, classroom programs and online courses. Educational psychologists who work in k-12 school settings (called [[School psychology|school psychologists]] in the [[United States]]) are trained at the [[Master's degree|masters]] and [[Doctorate|doctoral]] levels. In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], status as a ''Chartered Educational Psychologist'' is gained by completing: * an undergraduate degree in psychology permitting registration with the [[British Psychological Society]] * two or three years experience working with children, young people and their families. * a three-year professional doctorate in educational psychology. The previous requirement to train and work for two years as a teacher has now been abandoned. ===Employment outlook=== Employment for psychologists in the United States is expected to grow faster than most occupations through the year 2014, with anticipated growth of 18-26%. One in four psychologist are employed in educational settings. In the United States, the [[median]] [[salary]] for psychologists in primary and secondary schools is $58,360 as of May 2004.<ref name=OOH>Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. ''Occupational Outlook Handbook''. 2006-07 Edition. Psychologists. retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm on June 30, 2006. </ref> In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in [[North America]]n educational psychology has risen dramatically.<ref name=evans>Evans, J., Hsieh, P. P., & Robinson, D. H. (2005). Women's Involvement in educational psychology journals from 1976 to 2004. ''Educational Psychology Review, 17'', 263-271.</ref> The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%. ==Research journals== {| align=right style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #BEBEBE; background:#f9f9f9; color:#000000" cellpadding=3 !Journal !Impact* |- |[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&specific=0046-1520 Educational Psychologist] ||3.72 |- |[http://www.cc.gatech.edu/lst/jls/ Journal of the Learning Sciences] ||2.28 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620190/description#description Learning and Individual Differences] ||2.17 |- |[http://www.aera.net/publications/?id=319 Review of Educational Research] ||1.96 |- |[http://www.apa.org/journals/edu/ Journal of Educational Psychology] ||1.69 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/956/description#description Learning and Instruction] ||1.62 |- |[http://ojs.aera.net/journals/index.php/jebs Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics] ||1.35 |- |[http://springerlink.metapress.com/(t0svhs55wsolmg45powgxo55)/app/home/journal.asp?referrer=parent&backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104855,1 Educational Psychology Review] ||1.23 |- |[http://35.8.171.42/aera/pubs/aerj/ American Educational Research Journal] ||1.10 |- |[http://www.bps.org.uk/publications/journals/bjep/bjep_home.cfm British Journal of Educational Psychology] ||0.92 |- |[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&specific=0737-0008 Cognition and Instruction] ||0.80 |- |[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622811/description#description Contemporary Educational Psychology] ||0.75 |- |[http://www.heldref.org/jexpe.php Journal of Experimental Education] ||0.73 |- |[http://www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-40406-70-35680520-0,00.html Instructional Science] ||0.66 |- |[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0022-0655 Journal of Educational Measurement] || 0.47 |- |[http://www.aect.org/Intranet/Publications/index.asp#etrd Educational Technology Res and Dev]||0.20 |- |[http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/about.html International Journal of Learning] ||0.19 |- |European Journal of Psychology of Education ||0.18 |- |Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology ||0.08 |- | * Citations per article from 2005 ISI JCR |} Although not exhaustive, the table to the right lists [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journals in educational psychology and related fields. The [[impact factor]] is the average number of [[citations]] per article in each journal. ==See also== {{wikiversity}} * [[:Category:Educational psychology|Articles related to educational psychology]] * [[American Educational Research Association]] * [[American Psychological Association]] * [[Association for Psychological Science]] * [[British Psychological Society]] * [[:Category:Educational psychologists|Educational psychologists]] * [[b:Contemporary Educational Psychology|Contemporary Educational Psychology]] * [[Educational research]] * [[Evolutionary educational psychology]] * [[List of publications in psychology#Educational psychology|Important publications in educational psychology]] * [[International Society of the Learning Sciences]] * [[Learning sciences]] * [[List of education topics]] * [[Philosophy of education]] * [[School psychologist]] {{Portalpar|Education|Nuvola apps bookcase.png}} == External links == * [http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/educational.shtml Educational Psychology Resources] by [[Athabasca University]] * [http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.html Division 15 of the American Psychological Association] * [http://www.bps.org.uk/education/education_home.cfm Psychology of Education Section of the British Psychological Society] * [http://www.schoolpsychology.net/ School Psychology on the Web] * [http://tip.psychology.org/index.html Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database] * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/index.htm Classics in the History of Psychology] * [http://www.apa.org/science/standards.html The Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing] * [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Category:Educational_psychology Educational psychology at The Psychology Wiki] * [http://www.edpsy.co.uk/ A new Educational Psychology related forum for the UK & Ireland] * [http://www.coe.uga.edu/tep/current.html Teaching Educational Psychology] ===Careers in the United Kingdom=== *[http://www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_page/Explore_types_of_jobs/Types_of_Job/p!eipaL?state=showocc&pageno=1&idno=67 United Kingdom description of educational psychologist] *[http://www.bps.org.uk/careers/areas/educational.cfm Educational Psychologist description from the British Psychological Society] ===Careers in the United States=== * [http://www.wcupa.edu/_ACADEMICS/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Educational/Career04.htm Careers in Educational Psychology] ===Textbooks=== There are many introductory educational psychology textbooks, mostly intended for future k-12 teachers. * [http://www.hmco.com/education/snowman/psych_app/10e/students/index.html Psychology Applied To Teaching] by Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler * [http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/education/santrock2e/santrock_bridge.html Educational Psychology] by John Santrock * [http://www.abacon.com/slavin/index.html Educational Psychology] by Robert Slavin * [http://www.prenhall.com/ormrod/ormrod-presell/index1.html Educational Psychology: Developing Learners] by Jeanne Ormrod * [http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_woolfolk_edpsych_9 Educational Psychology] by Anita Woolfolk * [http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/education/elliott/ Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning] by Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook & Travers ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{Psychology}} [[Category:Educational psychology| ]] [[Category:Applied psychology]] [[Category:Human behavior]] [[Category:Social sciences]] [[bs:Pedagoška psihologija]] [[da:Pædagogisk psykologi]] [[de:Pädagogische Psychologie]] [[es:Psicología educacional]] [[he:פסיכולוגיה חינוכית]] [[ja:教育心理学]] [[pt:Psicologia educacional]] [[ru:Педагогическая психология]] [[sl:Pedagoška psihologija]] [[sr:Школска психологија]] [[fi:Kasvatuspsykologia]] [[tr:Eğitim psikolojisi]] [[zh:教育心理学]]