Elder Futhark
1265772
225766089
2008-07-15T08:42:05Z
124.170.255.140
/* Unicode Keyboard */
{{RunicChars}}
{{Infobox WS
|name=Elder Futhark
|type=alphabet
|languages=[[Proto-Germanic]], [[Proto-Norse]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[Alemannic German|Alamannic]]
|time=2nd to 8th centuries
|fam1=[[Phoenician alphabet]]
|fam2=[[Greek alphabet]] ([[Cumae alphabet|Cumae variant]])
|fam3=[[Old Italic alphabets]]
|children=[[Younger Futhark]], [[Anglo-Saxon futhorc]]
}}
[[Image:Elder futhark inscriptions.png|thumb|267px|Map of where Elder Futhark runic inscriptions have been found.]]
The '''Elder Futhark''' (or '''Elder Fuþark''', '''Older Futhark''', '''Old Futhark''') is the oldest form of the [[runic alphabet]], used by [[Germanic tribes]] for [[Proto-Norse]] and other [[Migration period]] Germanic dialects of the [[2nd century|2nd]] to [[8th century|8th]] centuries for inscriptions on artifacts (jewellery, amulets, tools, weapons) and [[runestone]]s. In Scandinavia, the script was simplified to the [[Younger Futhark]] from the late 8th century, while the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and [[Frisians]] extended the Futhark which eventually became the [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] [[futhorc]] after Proto-English /a/ developed to /o/ in nasal environments.
Unlike the younger futhark which remained in use until modern times, the knowledge of how to read the Elder Futhark was forgotten, and it was not until 1865 that the Norwegian scholar [[Sophus Bugge]] managed to decipher it.<ref>The article ''[http://www.lansmuseum.a.se/lanet/runor/runforskning.html Forskning om runor och runstenar]'', by Mats Vänehem at the site of Stockholm County Museum.</ref>
==Alphabet==
The Elder Futhark (named after the initial [[phoneme]] of the first six rune names: F, U, Th, A, R and K) consist of twenty-four runes, often arranged in three groups or ''aett'' of eight each. In the following table, each rune is given with its common [[transliteration]]:
{|
|-
| [[Image:Runic letter fehu.png|24px|f]] f || [[Image:Runic letter uruz.png|24px|u]] u || [[Image:Runic letter thurisaz.png|24px|th,þ]] þ || [[Image:Runic letter ansuz.png|24px|a]] a || [[Image:Runic letter raido.png|24px|r]] r || [[Image:Runic letter kauna.png|24px|k]] k || [[Image:Runic letter gebo.png|24px|g]] g || [[Image:Runic letter wunjo.png|24px|w]] w
|-
| [[Image:Runic letter haglaz.png|24px|h]] h || [[Image:Runic letter naudiz.png|24px|n]] n || [[Image:Runic letter isaz.png|24px|i]] i || [[Image:Runic letter jeran.png|24px|j]] j || [[Image:Runic letter iwaz.png|24px|ï,ei]] ï || [[Image:Runic letter pertho.png|24px|p]] p || [[Image:Runic letter algiz.png|24px|z]] z || [[Image:Runic letter sowilo.png|24px|s]] s
|-
| [[Image:Runic letter tiwaz.png|24px|t]] t || [[Image:Runic letter berkanan.png|24px|b]] b || [[Image:Runic letter ehwaz.png|24px|e]] e || [[Image:Runic letter mannaz.png|24px|m]] m || [[Image:Runic letter laukaz.png|24px|l]] l || [[Image:Runic letter ingwaz.png|24px|ŋ]] ŋ || [[Image:Runic letter dagaz.png|24px|d]] d || [[Image:Runic letter othalan.png|24px|o]] o
|-
|}
'''[[þ]]''' corresponds to [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[θ]}}.
'''ï''' is also transcribed as '''æ''', and may have been either a diphthong, or a vowel near {{IPA|[ɪ]}} or {{IPA|[æ]}}. '''z''' was Proto-Germanic {{IPA|[z]}}, and evolved into Primitive Norse {{IPA|[ɹ]}}, and is also transliterated as <small>'''R'''</small>. The remaining transliterations correspond to the IPA symbol of their approximate value.
The earliest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates to ca. [[400]] and is found on the [[Kylver Stone]] in [[Gotland]]:
:'''[f]uþarkg[w]hnijpïzstbemlŋdo'''
Two instances of another early inscription were found on the two [[Vadstena bracteate|Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates]] (6th century), showing the division in three ætts, with the positions of '''ï''', '''p''' and '''o''', '''d''' inverted compared to the Kylver stone:
:'''fuþarkgw'''; '''hnijïpzs'''; '''tbemlŋod'''
The [[Grumpan bracteate]] presents a listing from c. 500 which is identical to the one found on the previous bracteates but incomplete:
:'''fuþarkgw''' ... '''hnijïp(z)''' ... '''tbeml(ŋ)(o)d'''
== Unicode Keyboard ==
The Runic Keyboard utilizes the [[Unicode]] [[TrueType]] font to display rune character sets on your computer. The Runic keyboard is compatible with [[TrueType]] fonts that comply with The [[Unicode]] Standard 5.1 character sets. Some free [[True Type]] fonts that are currently available are: [[Junicode]], [[FreeMono]] and [[FreeRuneCode]].
To type rune characters onto your computer you need to install a keyboard utility. A free utility currently available with all the Futhark keys already installed is called the [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~dazz/runic.html Runic keyboard for Microsoft Windows] — (QWERTY version) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~dazz/runic.html This is available as a free download.] This keyboard utility will work with [[Junicode]], [[FreeMono]] and [[FreeRuneCode]] [[True Type]] fonts.
==Origins==
{{seealso|Runic alphabet}}
===Derivation from Italic alphabets===
[[Image:Negau helmet inscription.jpg|thumb|300px|the [[Old Italic alphabet|Northern Etruscan alphabet]] Negau helmet inscription (read from right to left)]]
The Elder Futhark runes are commonly believed to originate in the [[Old Italic alphabet]]s: either a North Italic variant (Etruscan or Raetic alphabets), or the [[Latin alphabet]] itself. Derivation from the [[Greek alphabet]] via [[Goths|Gothic]] contact to Byzantine Greek culture was popular in the 19th century, but has been ruled out since the dating of the [[Vimose]] inscriptions to the 2nd century (while the Goths had been in contact with Greek culture only from the early 3rd century). Conversely, the Greek-derived 4th century [[Gothic alphabet]] does have two letters derived from runes, [[Image:Gothic j.png|16px|j]] (from [[Jera]]) and [[Image:Gothic u.png|16px|u]] (from [[Uruz]]).
The angular shapes of the runes, presumably an adaptation to the incision in wood or metal, are not a Germanic innovation, but a property that is shared with other early alphabets, including the Old Italic ones (compare, for example, the [[Duenos inscription]]). The [[1st century BC]] [[Negau helmet]] inscription features a Germanic name, ''Hariagastiz'', in a North Etruscan alphabet, and may be a testimony of the earliest contact of Germanic speakers with alphabetic writing. Similarly, the [[Meldorf inscription]] of ca. AD 50 may qualify as "proto-runic" use of the Latin alphabet by Germanic speakers.
The [[Raetic]] "[[alphabet of Bolzano]]" in particular seems to fit the letter shapes well<ref>J. Gippert, [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/germ/runealph.htm The Development of Old Germanic Alphabets]</ref> The [[spearhead of Kovel]], dated to ca. AD 200, sometimes advanced as evidence of a peculiar [[Goths|Gothic]] variant of the runic alphabet, bears an inscription ''tilarids'' that may in fact be in an Old Italic rather than a runic alphabet, running right to left with a ''T'' and a ''D'' closer to the Latin or Etruscan than to the Bolzano or runic alphabets.
The '''f''', '''a''', '''g''', '''i''', '''t''', '''m''' and '''l''' runes show no variation, and are generally accepted as identical to Old Italic or Latin ''F, A, X, I, T, M'' and ''L''. There is also wide agreement that the '''u''', '''r''', '''k''', '''h''', '''s''', '''b''' and '''o''' runes correspond directly to ''V, R, C, H, S, B'' and ''O''.
The runes of uncertain derivation may either be original innovations, or adoptions of otherwise unneeded Latin letters. Odenstedt (1990:163) suggests that all 22 Latin letters of the [[History of the Latin alphabet#Classical Latin period|classical Latin alphabet]] (1st century, ignoring marginalized ''[[K]]'') were adopted ('''[[Thurisaz|þ]]''' from ''D'', '''[[algiz|z]]''' from ''Y'', '''[[Ingwaz|ŋ]]''' from ''Q'', '''[[wynn|w]]''' from ''P'', '''[[jera|j]]''' from ''G'', '''[[eihwaz|ï]]''' from ''Z''), with two runes ('''[[peordh|p]]''' and '''[[dagaz|d]]''') left over as original Germanic innovations, but there are conflicting scholarly opinions regarding the '''[[ehwaz|e]]''' (from ''E''?), '''[[naudiz|n]]''' (from ''N''?), '''þ''' (''D'' or Raetic ''Θ''?), '''w''' (''Q'' or ''P''?), , '''ï''' and '''z''' (both from either ''Z'' or Latin ''Y''?), '''ŋ''' (''Q''?) and '''d''' runes.<ref>Odenstedt (1990:160ff.)</ref>
Of the 24 runes in the classical futhark row attested from ca. AD 400 ([[Kylver stone]]),
'''[[Eihwaz|ï]]''', '''[[peordh|p]]'''<ref>speculated by Looijenga (1997) to be a variant of '''[[berkanan|b]]'''</ref> and '''[[Ingwaz|ŋ]]'''<ref>Westergaard (1981) postulates occurrence in [[Vimose|34 Vimose]] and [[Gothic runic inscriptions|23 Letcani]], rejected by Odenstedt (1990:118)</ref> are unattested in the earliest inscriptions of ca. AD 175 to 400, while '''[[Ehwaz|e]]''' in this early period mostly takes a Π-shape, its M-shape ([[Image:Runic letter ehwaz.png|16px|]]) gaining prevalence only from the 5th century. Similarly, the ''s'' rune may have either three ([[Image:Runic letter sowilo variant.png|16px|]]) or four ([[Image:Runic letter sowilo.png|16px]]) strokes (and more rarely five or more), and only from the 5th century does the variant with three strokes become prevalent.
Note that the "mature" runes of the 6th to 8th centuries tend to have only three directions of strokes, the vertical and two diagonal directions. Early inscriptions also show horizontal strokes: in the case of '''e''' mentioned above, but also in '''t''', '''l''', '''ŋ''' and '''h'''.
===Date and purpose of invention===
The general agreement dates the creation of the first runic alphabet to roughly the [[1st century AD]]. Early estimates include the [[1st century BC]]<ref>Moltke (1976:54): "the year 0±100"</ref>, and late estimates push the date into the [[2nd century AD]]. The question is one of estimating the "findless" period separating the script's creation from the [[Vimose]] finds of ca. AD [[160s|160]]. If either '''[[eihwaz|ï]]''' or '''[[algiz|z]]''' indeed derive from Latin ''Y'' or ''Z'', as suggested by Odenstedt, the first century BC is ruled out, because these letters were only introduced into the Latin alphabet during the reign of [[Augustus]].
Other scholars are content to assume a findless period of a few decades, pushing the date into the early 2nd century (Askeberg 1944:77, c.f. Odenstedt 1990:168). Pedersen (and with him Odenstedt) suggests a period of development of about a century to account for their assumed derivation of the shapes of '''þ''' [[Image:Runic letter thurisaz.png|16px|]] and '''j''' [[Image:Runic letter jeran.png|16px|]] from Latin ''D'' and ''G''.
The invention of the script has been ascribed to a single person (Moltke 1976:53) or a group of people who had come into contact with Roman culture, maybe as mercenaries in the Roman army, or as merchants. The script was clearly designed for epigraphic purposes, but opinions differ in stressing either magical, practical or simply playful ([[graffiti]]) aspects. Bæksted (1952:134) concludes that in its earliest stage, the runic script was an "artificial, playful, not really needed imitation of the Roman script", much like the Germanic [[bracteate]]s were directly influenced by Roman currency, a view that is accepted by Odenstedt (1990:171) in the light of the very primitive nature of the earliest (2nd to 4th century) inscription corpus.
==Rune names==
Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves. [[Linguistic reconstruction|Reconstructed]] names in [[Proto-Germanic]] have been produced, based on the names given for the runes in the later runic alphabets attested in the [[rune poem]]s and the linked names of the letters of the [[Gothic alphabet]]. The asterisk before the rune names means that they are unattested reconstructions. The 24 Elder Futhark runes are:<ref name=PAGE14-15>Page, R.I. (2005) ''Runes'', pages 8, 15, and 16. The British Museum Press ISBN 0-7141-8065-3</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Rune
!Value
!Proto-Germanic name
!Meaning
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter fehu.svg|14x30px|f]]
|F
|[[fehu|*fehu]]
|"Money, wealth, cattle"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter uruz.svg|14x30px|u]]
|U
|[[uruz|*ūruz]]
|"[[Aurochs]]" (or ûram "water/slag"?) "strength, power"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter thurisaz.svg|14x30px|th,þ]]
|TH ([[Thorn (letter)|Þ]])
|[[*þurisaz|?*þurisaz]]
|"[[Jötunn|Giant]], monster"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter ansuz.svg|14x30px|a]]
|A
|[[*Ansuz (rune)|*ansuz]]
|"[[Æsir]]"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter raido.svg|14x30px|r]]
|R
|[[raido|*raidō]]
|"Ride, journey"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter kauna.svg|14x30px|k]]
|K
|[[kaunan|Unknown, possibly *kaunan?]]
|Old English ''cen'' "ulcer", Old Norse ''kaun'' "torch"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter gebo.svg|14x30px|g]]
|G
|[[gebo|*gebō]]
|"Gift"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter wunjo.svg|14x30px|w]]
|W
|[[wunjo|*wunjō]]
|"Joy"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter haglaz.svg|14x30px|h]]
|H
|[[haglaz|*hagalaz]]
|[[Hail|"Hail (precipitation)"]]
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter naudiz.svg|14x30px|n]]
|N
|[[naudiz|*naudiz]]
|"Need"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter isaz.svg|14x30px|i]]
|I
|[[isaz|*īsa-]]
|"Ice"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter jeran.svg|14x30px|j]]
|J/Y
|[[jera|*jēra-]]
|"Year, fruitful time of the year"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter iwaz.svg|14x30px|ï,ei]]
|EI
|[[Eihaz|*ī(h)waz/*Eihwaz]]
|[[Taxus baccata|"Yew-tree"]]
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter pertho.svg|14x30px|p]]
|P
|[[pertho|?*perþ-]]
|Meaning unclear.
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter algiz.svg|14x30px|R]]
|Z, later R.
|[[algiz|?*algiz]]
|Unclear, possibly "[[moose|elk]]".
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter sowilo.svg|14x30px|s]]
|S
|[[sowilo|*sōwilō]]
|"Sun"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter tiwaz.svg|14x30px|t]]
|T
|[[Tiwaz rune|*tīwaz/*teiwaz]]
|"The god [[Tyr|Tiw]] (Later Tyr)"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter berkanan.svg|14x30px|b]]
|B
|[[berkanan|*berkanan]]
|"Birch twig"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter ehwaz.svg|14x30px|e]]
|E
|[[ehwaz|*ehwaz]]
|"Horse"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter mannaz.svg|14x30px|m]]
|M
|[[mannaz|*mannaz]]
|"Man"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter laukaz.svg|14x30px|l]]
|L
|[[laguz|*laguz]]
|"Water" (or possibly *laukaz meaning "leek")
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter ingwaz.svg|14x30px|ŋ]]
|NG
|[[Ingwaz|*ingwaz]]
|"The god [[Yngvi|Ing]]"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter dagaz.svg|14x30px|d]]
|D
|[[dagaz|*dagaz]]
|"Day"
|-
|[[Image:Runic letter othalan.svg|14x30px|o]]
|O
|[[othalan|*ōþila-/*ōþala-]]
|"Hereditary land, possession"
|}
The rune names stood for their rune because of the first phoneme in the name (the principle of [[acrophony]]), with the exception of ''Ingwaz'' and ''Algiz'': the Proto-Germanic ''z'' sound of the ''Algiz'' rune, never occurred in a word-initial position. The phoneme acquired an ''r''-like quality in Proto-Norse, usually transcribed with <small>'''R'''</small>, and finally merged with '''r''' in Icelandic, rendering the rune superfluous as a letter. Similarly, the ''ng''-sound of the ''Ingwaz'' rune does not occur word-initially.
Most names, in spite of being reconstructions, can be assumed with a fair degree of certainty for the Old Futhark because of the concurrence of Gothic, Anglo-Saxon and Nordic names. The names come from the vocabulary of daily life and mythology, some trivial, some beneficent and some inauspicious:
*Mythology: Tiwaz, Thurisaz, Ingwaz, God, Man, Sun.
*Nature and environment: Sun, day, year, hail, ice, lake, water, birch, yew, pear, elk, aurochs, ear (of corn).
*Daily life and [[human condition]]: Man, wealth/cattle, horse, estate/inheritance, slag, ride/journey, year/harvest, gift, joy, need, ulcer/illness.
It has been argued that such a distribution of meanings support the use of the runes for purposes of [[runic divination|divination]]. On the other hand, however, the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]], although hardly ever used for divination, shows a similar distribution of inherited names (Charlie, Juliet), unremarkable basic vocabulary (Hotel, Uniform) and concepts very much in vogue at the time of its invention (Radar, X-Ray, Foxtrot, Tango). A similar acrophonic principle is found in the names of the [[Ogham]] letters given in the 14th century ''[[Auraicept na n-Éces]]''.
==Inscription corpus==
[[Image:Einangsteinen inscription.jpg|thumb|300px|'''[ek go]dagastir runo faihido''' inscription on the [[4th century]] "[[Einang stone]]" [http://www.nordic-life.org/nmh/runic.htm] ]]
Old Futhark inscriptions were found on artefacts scattered between the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] and [[Sápmi (area)|Lappland]], with the highest concentration in [[Denmark]]. They are usually short inscriptions on jewellery ([[bracteate]]s, [[fibula (brooch)|fibula]]e, belt buckles), utensils (combs, spinning whorls) or weapons (lance tips, seaxes) and were mostly found in graves or bogs.
===Scandinavian inscriptions===
[[Image:Brakteat Odin Runen.jpg||thumb|300px|[[Seeland-II-C]] bracteate, ca. AD 500, '''hariuha haitika : farauisa : gibu auja : ttt''']]
Words frequently appearing in inscriptions on bracteates with possibly magical significance are '''alu''', '''laþu''' and '''laukaz'''. Their meaning is unclear, although '''alu''' has been associated with "ale, intoxicating drink", in a context of [[sumbel|ritual drinking]], and '''laukaz''' with "leek, garlic", in a context of fertility and growth. An example of a longer early inscription is on a [[4th century]] axe-handle found in Nydam, [[Jutland]]: '''wagagastiz / alu:??hgusikijaz:aiþalataz''' (''wagagaztiz'' "wave-guest" could be a personal name, the rest has been read as '''alu:wihgu sikijaz:aiþalataz''' with a putative meaning "wave/flame-guest, from a bog, '''alu''', I, oath-sayer consecrate/fight". The obscurity even of emended readings is typical for runic inscriptions that go beyond simple personal names). A term frequently found in early inscriptions is '''[[Erilaz]]''', apparently describing a person with knowledge of runes.
The oldest known runic inscription dates to ca. [[160s|160]] AD and is found on a comb discovered in the bog of [[Vimose]], [[Funen]]. The inscription reads '''harja''', either a personal name or an epithet, viz. [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*harjaz'' ([[PIE]] ''{{PIE|*koryos}}'') "[[warrior]]", or simply the word for "comb" (''*hārjaz''). Another early inscription is found on the [[Thorsberg chape]] (ca. 200), probably containing the theonym [[Ullr]].
The typically Scandinavian [[runestone]]s begin to show the transition to [[Younger Futhark]] from the 6th century, with transitional examples like the [[Björketorp Runestone|Björketorp]] or [[Stentoften Runestone|Stentoften]] stones. In the early [[9th century]], both the older and the younger futhark were known and used, which is shown on the [[Rök Runestone]] where the [[runemaster]] used both.
The longest known inscription in Older Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early [[8th century]] [[Eggjum stone]], and may even contain a stanza of [[Old Norse poetry]].
The [[Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus]] reading '''raihan''' "deer" is notable as the oldest inscription of the British Isles, dating to ca. AD 400, the very [[Sub-Roman Britain|end of Roman Britain]] and just predating the modifications leading to [[futhorc]].
===Continental inscriptions===
The oldest inscriptions (before AD 500) found on the Continent are divided into two groups, the area of the North Sea coast and Northern Germany (including parts of the Netherlands) associated with the [[Saxons]] and [[Frisians]] on one hand (part of the "North Germanic ''Koine''", Martin 2004:173), and loosely scattered finds from along the [[Oder]] to south-eastern Poland, as far as the [[Carpathian Mountains]] (e.g. the [[ring of Pietroassa]]), associated with East Germanic tribes. The latter group disappears during the 5th century, the time of contact of the [[Goths]] with the [[Roman Empire]] and their conversion to [[Germanic Christianity|Christianity]].
In this early period, there is no specifically West Germanic runic tradition. This changes from the early 6th century, and for about one century (520s to 620s), an [[Alamanni]]c "runic province" (Martin 2004) emerges, with examples on fibulae, weapon parts and belt buckles. As in the East Germanic case, use of runes subsides with Christianization, in the case of the Alamanni in the course of the 7th century.
===Distribution===
There are some 350 known Elder Futhark inscriptions (Fischer 2004:281). Lüthi (2004:321) identifies a total of approx. 81 known inscriptions from the South (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and approx. 267 from Scandinavia. The precise numbers are debatable because of some suspected forgeries, and some disputed inscriptions (identification as "runes" vs. accidental scratches, simple ornaments or Latin letters). 133 Scandinavian inscriptions are on bracteates (compared to 2 from the South), and 65 are on [[runestone]]s (no Southern example is extant). Southern inscriptions are predominantly on fibulae (43, compared to 15 in Scandinavia). The Scandinavian runestones belong to the later period of the Elder Futhark, and initiate the boom of medieval [[Younger Futhark]] stones (with some 6,000 surviving examples).
Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active literati, in relation to the total population, at any time, so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual "secret" throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances excavated at [[Illerup]], only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 excavated graves to every inscription found (Lüthi 2004:323)
Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced are based on the "minimal runological estimate" of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year for four centuries). The actual number was probably considerably higher. The ca. 80 known Southern inscriptions are from some 100,000 known graves. With an estimated total of 50,000,000 graves (based on population density estimates), some 80,000 inscriptions would have been produced in total in the [[Merovingian]] South alone (and maybe close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down to us), and Fischer (2004:281) estimates a population of several hundred active literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic "runic boom" of the 6th century.
===List of inscriptions===
After Looijenga (1997), Lüthi (2004).
* Scandinavia
** Period I (AD 150–550)
*** [[Vimose inscriptions]] (6 objects, 160–300)
*** [[Gotland spearhead]] (ca. 180), '''gaois'''
*** [[Ovre Stabu spearhead]] (ca. 180), '''raunijaz'''
*** [[Illerup inscriptions]] (9 objects)
*** [[Golden horns of Gallehus]] (ca. 400)
*** [[Einang stone]] (ca. 400)
*** [[Kylver Stone]] (ca. 400)
*** [[Rö Runestone]] (400-450)
*** [[Kalleby Runestone]] (5th century)
*** [[Möjbro Runestone]] (400-550)
*** [[Järsberg Runestone]] (500-550)
** Bracteates: total 133 (see also '''[[Alu (runic)|Alu]]''')
*** [[Seeland-II-C]] (ca. 500)
*** [[Vadstena bracteate]]
*** [[Tjurkö bracteate]]
** Period II (AD 550–700)
*** [[Skåäng Runestone]] (6th century?)
*** [[Björketorp Runestone]]
*** [[Gummarp Runestone]]
*** [[Istaby Runestone]]
*** [[Stentoften Runestone]]
* South-Eastern Europe (AD 200–550): ca. 4
** [[Gothic runic inscriptions]] (200–350)
* Continental inscriptions (mainly Germany; AD 200–700): 50 legible, 15 illegible (39 brooches, 11 weapon parts, 4 fittings and belt buckles, 3 strap ends, 8 other)
** [[Thorsberg chape]] (ca. 200)
** [[Nordendorf fibula]]
** [[Pforzen buckle]]
** [[Bülach fibula]]
* English and Frisian (AD 300–700): 44; see [[futhorc]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
*A. Bæksted, ''Målruner og troldruner'', Copenhagen (1952).
* J. H. Looijenga, ''[http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/ Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700]'', dissertation, Groningen University (1997).
* Katrin Lüthi, ''Von Þruþhild und Hariso: Alemannische und ältere skandinavische Runenkultur im Vergleich'' in: Alemannien und der Norden, ed. Naumann (2004), 318–339.
* Max Martin, ''Kontinentalgermanische Runeninschriften und 'alamannische Runenprovinz' '' in: Alemannien und der Norden, ed. Naumann (2004), 165–212.
* Svante Fischer, ''Alemannia and the North — Early Runic Contexts Apart (400–800)'' in: Alemannien und der Norden, ed. Naumann (2004), 266–317.
*Sean Nowak, ''Schrift auf den Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit'', Diss. Göttingen (2003) [http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/diss/2003/nowak/nowak.pdf]
*Bengt Odenstedt, ''On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script, Typology and Graphic Variation in the Older Futhark'', Uppsala (1990), ISBN 9185352209.
* Hemlut Rix, 'Germanische Runen und venetische Phonetik', in ''Vergleichende germanische Philologie und Skandinavistik, Festschrift für Otmar Werner'', ed. Birkmann et al., Tübingen (1997), 231–248.
* Orrin W. Robinson ''Old English and its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages'' Stanford University Press, [[1992]]. ISBN 0-8047-1454-1
==See also==
*[[Proto-Norse]]
*[[Runic alphabet]]
*[[Rune poem]]
*[[Runestone]]
*[[Gothic alphabet]]
==External links==
{{commons|runes}}
*[http://www.runenprojekt.uni-kiel.de/ Runenprojekt] inscription database at the University of Kiel
*[http://ancientscripts.com/futhark.html Ancient Scripts: Futhark]
*[http://www.nordic-life.org/nmh/runic.htm Runic Inscriptions] by Yves Kodratoff
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/runic.htm#elder Omniglot.com – Elder Futhark]
*[http://futhark.com The elder Futhark]
*[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~dazz/runic.html Runic keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows] — (QWERTY version)
{{Runes}}
[[Category:Runology]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]
[[cs:Germánský futhark prostý]]
[[nn:Den eldre futharken]]
[[sv:Futhark#Den äldre futharken]]