Electric motor
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224930295
2008-07-11T01:35:16Z
Sebleblanc
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/* Brushed DC motors */ Appropriate capitalization
{{For|other kinds of motors|motor}}
[[Image:Motors01CJC.jpg|thumb|Electric motors]]
An '''electric motor''' uses [[electrical energy]] to produce [[mechanical energy]]. The reverse process, that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished by a [[Electrical generator|generator]] or dynamo. [[Traction motor]]s used on [[locomotive]]s and some electric and hybrid automobiles often perform both tasks if the vehicle is equipped with [[dynamic brake]]s. Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens.
== History and development ==
The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist [[Michael Faraday]] in [[1821]] and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of [[mercury (element)|mercury]].
A permanent [[magnet]] was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury.
When a [[Current (electricity)|current]] was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but [[brine]] (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called [[homopolar motor]]s. A later refinement is the [[Barlow's Wheel]]. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.
The first electric motor using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating parts was demonstrated by [[Ányos Jedlik]] in 1828 [[Hungary]], who later developed a motor powerful enough to propel a vehicle. The first [[Commutator (electric)|commutator]]-type direct-current electric motor capable of a practical application was invented by the British scientist [[William Sturgeon]] in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American [[Thomas Davenport]] and patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and used to operate equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of [[battery (electricity)|primary battery power]], the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when [[Zénobe Gramme]] connected the [[Electrical generator|dynamo]] he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The [[Gramme machine]] was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.
In 1888 [[Nikola Tesla]] invented the first practicable [[AC motor]] and with it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.
== Categorization of electric motors ==
The classic division of electric motors has been that of [[Direct Current]] (DC) types vs [[Alternating Current]] (AC) types. This is more a ''de facto'' convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run happily on AC power. {{Fact|date=June 2008}}
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation of. The two best examples are: the [[brushless DC motor]] and the [[stepping motor]], both being polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control.
There is a clearer distinction between a [[synchronous motor]] and asynchronous types. In the synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or current (eg. permanent magnet motors). In contrast, an asynchronous motor is designed to slip; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC [[induction motor]] which must slip in order to generate torque.
== DC motors ==
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are [[Michael Faraday]]'s [[homopolar motor]] (which is uncommon), and the [[ball bearing motor]], which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
=== Brushed DC motors ===
{{main|Brushed DC electric motor}}
The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a split ring [[commutator (electric)|commutator]], and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.
Many of the limitations of the classic [[commutator (electric)|commutator]] DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates [[friction]]. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes [[electrical noise]]. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts.
=== Brushless DC motors ===
{{main|Brushless DC electric motor}}
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary [[Direct current|DC]] motors and [[stepper motor]]s lies the realm of the [[Brushless DC electric motor|brushless DC motor]]. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet '''external''' rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more [[Hall effect sensor]]s to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their own [[variable-frequency drive]] electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric [[Radio control|radio-controlled]] vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as '''outrunner''' motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer [[disk drive]]s or in [[video cassette recorder]]s, the spindles within [[CD]], [[CD-ROM]] (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as [[fan (mechanical)|fans]], [[laser printer]]s and [[photocopier]]s. They have several advantages over conventional motors:
* Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's [[bearing]]s.
* Without a [[commutator (electric)|commutator]] to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
* The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient [[tachometer]] signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
* The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed control.
* Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels.
*Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
*They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a [[watt]] to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
=== Coreless DC motors ===
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the '''coreless DC motor''', a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid [[acceleration]], these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the [[stator]] magnets, a basket surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat ''pancake'' (possibly formed on a [[printed wiring board]]) running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with Electrical [[epoxy]] potting systems. Filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. These systems are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm. Typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) UL File No. E 210549.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight ([[mass]]) than a conventional rotor formed from [[copper]] windings on [[steel]] laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical [[time constant]] under 1 [[millisecond|ms]]. This is especially true if the windings use [[aluminium|aluminum]] rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.
These motors were commonly used to drive the [[capstan]](s) of [[magnetic tape]] drives and are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radio-controlled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid [[robotic]] systems, industrial automation, medical devices, etc.
== Universal motors ==
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the [[Armature (electrical engineering)|armature]] (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC current ([[Electrical impedance|impedance]] must be taken into account, as must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an equivalent pure DC motor. Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors is limited and motors exceeding one kilowatt are rare. But universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway [[traction motor]] in [[Railway electrification system #Low-frequency alternating current|electric railways]]. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 Hz and 16 <sup>2</sup>/<sub>3</sub> hertz operation being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a [[third rail]] powered by [[Direct current|DC]].
The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the [[Commutator (electric)|commutator]]. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is very easily accomplished using a [[thyristor]] circuit, while stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a [[diode]] that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).
Universal motors can rotate at relatively high revolutions per minute (rpm). This makes them useful for appliances such as [[blender (device)|blenders]], [[vacuum cleaner]]s, and [[hair dryer]]s where high-speed operation is desired. Many vacuum cleaner and [[String trimmer|weed trimmer]] motors exceed 10,000 rpm, [[Dremel]] and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 rpm. Motor damage may occur due to overspeed (rpm in excess of design specifications) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes. Often, a small fan blade attached to the armature acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as provide cooling airflow to the armature and field windings.
With the very low cost of [[semiconductor]] [[rectifier]]s, some applications that would have previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field.
== AC motors ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Magnetic field]] -->
{{main|AC motor}}
In 1882, [[Nikola Tesla]] identified the [[alternator|rotating magnetic field]] principle, and pioneered the use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, [[Galileo Ferraris]] independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.
Introduction of Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is sometimes referred to as the ''[[Second Industrial Revolution]]'', making possible the efficient generation and long distance distribution of electrical energy using the alternating current transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888).<ref>[http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/system.htm]{{Dead link|date=March 2008}}</ref> Before the invention of the rotating magnetic field, motors operated by continually passing a conductor through a stationary magnetic field (as in [[homopolar motor]]s).
Tesla had suggested that the [[Commutator (electric)|commutator]]s from a machine could be removed and the device could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to building a [[perpetual motion machine]].<ref> "''[http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_early.html Tesla's Early Years]''". [[PBS]]. </ref> Tesla would later attain {{US patent|0416194}}, ''Electric Motor'' (December 1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an '''induction motor'''.
[[Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky]] later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications.
===Components===
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
# An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and;
# An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
== Torque motors ==
A torque motor is a specialized form of [[induction motor]] which is capable of operating indefinitely at [[Stall (engine)|stall]] (with the [[Rotor (electric)|rotor]] blocked from turning) without damage. In this mode, the motor will apply a steady [[stall torque]] to the load (hence the name). A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up [[reel]] motors in a [[tape drive]]. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the [[Capstan (tape recorder)|capstan]] is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional mechanics such as [[gear]]s or [[clutch]]es. In the computer world, torque motors are used with [[Haptic|force feedback]] steering wheels.
== Slip ring ==
The slip ring or wound rotor motor is an induction machine where the rotor comprises a set of coils that are terminated in [[slip_ring|slip rings]] to which external impedances can be connected. The stator is the same as is used with a standard squirrel cage motor.
By changing the impedance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be altered.
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a relatively low current from zero speed to full speed. A secondary use of the slip ring motor is to provide a means of speed control. Because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the resistance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed of the motor can be altered. Increasing the value of resistance on the rotor circuit will move the speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation is also very poor.
== Stepper motors ==
{{main|Stepper motor}}
Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are [[stepper motor]]s, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a large iron core with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a [[solenoid]]. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "[[cog]]" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital [[servomechanism|servo-controlled]] system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle with ease, and hence stepper motors are used in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives, thus newer hard disk drives use read/write head control systems based on [[voice coil]]s.
Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM (switched reluctance machine).
== Linear motors ==
{{main|Linear motor}}
A [[linear motor]] is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of producing a [[torque]] (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a linear motor in a [[Maglev train|maglev]] ([[Transrapid]]) train, where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail.
== Doubly-fed electric motor ==
[[Doubly-fed electric machine|'''Doubly-fed electric motors''']] have two independent multiphase windings that actively participate in the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two is the most active multiphase winding sets possible without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as [[singly-fed electric machine]]s, which have only one active winding set.
A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed near synchronous speed limit applications.<ref> Cyril W. Lander, ''Power Electronics 3rd Edition'', Mc Graw Hill International UK Limited, London 1993 ISBN 0-07-707714-8 Chapter 9-8 ''Slip Ring Induction Motor Control </ref>
== Singly-fed electric motor ==
[[Singly-fed electric machine]]s incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or synchronous. The active winding set can be electronically controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque at zero speed and can operate as standalone machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means for startup, such as a starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous speed for a given excitation frequency.
The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor), synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.), which are discussed on the this page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors are the predominantly installed type of motors.
== Nanotube nanomotor ==
{{main|Nanomotor}}
<!-- [[Image:Nanomotor.gif|thumb|Nanomotor constructed at [[UC Berkeley]]. The motor is about 500nm across: 300 times smaller than the diameter of a [[human hair]]]] -->
Researchers at [[University of California, Berkeley]], recently developed rotational bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of 100nm) to the outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the outer shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust; devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization that may find their way into commercial aspects in the future.
See also:
*[[Molecular motors]]
*[[Electrostatic motor]]
== Materials ==
{{See|Materials science}}
There is an impeding shortage of many rare raw materials used in the manufacture of hybrid and electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox 2008). For example, the [[rare earth element]] [[dysprosium]] is required to fabricate many of the advanced [[electric motors]] used in hybrid cars (Cox 2008). However, over 95% of the world's rare earth elements are mined in [[China]] (Haxel et al. 2005), and domestic Chinese consumption is expected to consume China's entire supply by 2012 (Cox 2008).{{fact|date=June 2008}}
A few non-Chinese sources such as [[Thor Lake]] and [[Hoidas Lake]] in [[Canada]], as well as [[Mt Weld]] in [[Australia]] are currently under development (Lunn 2006). However, it is not known if they will be online in time to supply sufficient production by the time shortage hits.{{fact|date=June 2008}}
==Motor standards==
The following are major design and manufacturing standards covering electric motors:
* [[International Electrotechnical Commission]]: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines
* [[National Electrical Manufacturers Association]] (USA): NEMA MG 1 Motors and Generators
==See also==
{{portalpar|Electronics|Nuvola_apps_ksim.png}}
{{Portal|Energy}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
Motor control:
* [[Motor controller]]
* [[Motor Soft Starter]]
* [[Direct on line starter]]
* [[Adjustable-speed drive]]
* [[Electronic speed control]]
* [[Variable-frequency drive]]
* [[Thyristor drive]]
* [[Torque and speed of a DC motor]]
Components:
* [[Centrifugal switch]]
* [[Commutator (electric)]]
* [[Slip ring]]
Scientists and engineers:
* [[Ottó Bláthy]]
* [[Charles Proteus Steinmetz]]
* [[Nikola Tesla]]
Related subjects:
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Timeline of motor and engine technology]]
* [[Power factor]]
* [[Polyphase system]]
* [[Traction motor]]
</div>
{{Electric motor}}
==References and further reading ==
;Citations
{{reflist}}
;General references
{{refbegin}}
* Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty, ''Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition'', McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-07-020974-X.
* Edwin J. Houston and Arthur Kennelly, ''Recent Types of Dynamo-Electric Machinery'', copyright American Technical Book Company 1897, published by P.F. Collier and Sons New York, 1902
* {{cite book | last=Kuphaldt | first=Tony R. | authorlink= | coauthors= | editor= | others= | title=Lessons In Electric Circuits — Volume II | origdate= | origyear= | origmonth= | url= | format= | accessdate=2006-04-11 | accessyear= | accessmonth= | edition= | date= | year=2000-2006 | month= | publisher= | location= | language= | id= | pages= | chapter=Chapter 13 AC MOTORS | chapterurl=http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/AC/AC_13.html }}
* {{cite web | title=A.O.Smith: The AC's and DC's of Electric Motors | work= | url=http://www.aosmithmotors.com/pdf/brochures/bulletin3100/ACDC.PDF | accessdate=2006-04-11}}
*Resenblat & Frienman DC and AC machinery
;Further reading
* Shanefield D. J., ''Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians,'' William Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY, 2001. A self-teaching textbook that briefly covers electric motors, transformers, speed controllers, wiring codes and grounding, [[transistor]]s, digital, etc. Easy to read and understand, up to an elementary level on each subject, not a suitable reference book for technologists already working in any of those fields.
* Fitzgerald/Kingsley/Kusko (Fitzgerald/Kingsley/Umans in later years), *''Electric Machinery'', classic text for junior and senior electrical engineering students. Originally published in 1952, 6th edition published in 2002. Authors still listed as Fitzgerald/Kingsley/Umans although Fitzgerald and Kingsley are now deceased.
* {{cite book
| last = Bedford
| first = B. D.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Hoft, R. G. et al
| year = 1964
| title = Principles of Inverter Circuits
| publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
| location = New York
| id = 0 471 06134 4
}} (Inverter circuits are used for [[variable-frequency drive|variable-frequency motor speed control]])
* B. R. Pelly, "Thyristor Phase-Controlled Converters and Cycloconverters: Operation, Control, and Performance" (New York: John Wiley, 1971).
* John N. Chiasson, ''Modeling and High Performance Control of Electric Machines'', Wiley-IEEE Press, New York, 2005, ISBN 0-471-68449-X.
{{refend}}
== External links==
* {{HSW|motor|How motors work}}
* [http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTORS.HTM Electricity museum: early motors]
*Video demonstration [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkLyhUCIJW0] of an original 1887 domestic-use electric motor.
* [http://www.specamotor.com/ Brand-independent electric motor selection site]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/HSCmotors.html Electric Motors and Generators], explanations with animations from the University of New South Wales.
* [http://users.goldengate.net/~kbrady/motors.pdf The Numbers Game: A Primer on Single-Phase A.C. Electric Motor Horsepower Ratings], Kevin S. Brady.
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[[Category:Electric motors|*]]
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[[Category:British inventions]]
[[Category:Magnetic propulsion devices]]
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