Electron
9476
225959266
2008-07-16T05:31:09Z
SCZenz
318264
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/60.54.180.177|60.54.180.177]] ([[User talk:60.54.180.177|talk]]) to last version by El C
{{alternateuses}}
{{dablink|"e-" redirects here. For the [[Internet-related prefix]] e-, see Wiktionary's entry [[wikt:e-|e-]].}}
{{dablink|"Negatron" redirects here. For the album by Voivod, see [[Negatron (album)]].}}
{{Infobox Particle
| bgcolour =
| name = Electron
| image = [[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|280px]]
| caption = Theoretical estimates of the electron density for the first few [[hydrogen atom]] electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density
| num_types =
| composition = [[Elementary particle]]
| family = [[Fermion]]
| group = [[Lepton]]
| generation = First
| interaction = [[Gravity]], [[Electromagnetic interaction|Electromagnetic]], [[Weak interaction|Weak]]
| antiparticle = [[Positron]]
| theorized = [[G. Johnstone Stoney]] (1874)
| discovered = [[J.J. Thomson]] (1897)
| symbol = e<sup>−</sup>, β<sup>−</sup>
| mass = 9.109<font size="-1"> </font>382<font size="-1"> </font>15(45) × 10<sup>–31</sup> [[Kilogram|kg]]<ref name="nist">All masses are 2006 [[Committee on Data for Science and Technology|CODATA]] values accessed via the NIST’s [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?me ''electron mass'' page]. The fractional version’s denominator is the inverse of the decimal value (along with its relative standard uncertainty of 5.0 × 10<sup>–8</sup>)</ref><br>
5.485<font size="-1"> </font>799<font size="-1"> </font>09(27) × 10<sup>–4</sup> [[Atomic mass unit|u]]<br>
<sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>1822.888<FONT SIZE="-1"> </FONT>4843(11)</sub> [[Atomic mass unit|u]]<br>
0.510<FONT SIZE="-1"> </FONT>998<FONT SIZE="-1"> </FONT>918(44) [[Electronvolt|MeV]]/[[speed of light|c]]<sup>2
| electric_charge = –1.602<FONT SIZE="-1"> </FONT>176<FONT SIZE="-1"> </FONT>487(40) × 10<sup>–19</sup> [[Coulomb|C]]<ref>The electron’s charge is the negative of ''[[elementary charge]]'' (which is a positive value for the proton). [[Committee on Data for Science and Technology|CODATA]] value accessed via the NIST’s [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?e|search_for=electron+charge ''elementary charge'' page].</ref>
| magnetic_moment = 1.0011596521859(38) [[Bohr magneton|μ<sub>B</sub>]]
| spin = ½
| num_spin_states =
}}
The '''electron''' is a [[fundamental particle|fundamental]] [[subatomic particle]] that carries a negative [[electric charge]]. It is a spin ½ [[lepton]] that participates in [[electromagnetic interaction]]s, and its mass is approximately <math>1/1836</math> of that of the [[proton]]. Together with [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]], which consist of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, electrons make up [[atoms]]. The electron(s) interaction with electron(s) of adjacent nuclei is the main cause of [[chemical bonding]].
==History==
The name ''electron'' comes from the Greek word for [[amber]], ''ήλεκτρον''. In turn this may be associated with the Greek word for the sun, helios, or ''ήλιος'', probably after the bright yellow form of amber found in the [[Baltic Sea]]. This material played an essential role in the discovery of electrical phenomena. The ancient Greeks knew, for example, that rubbing a piece of amber with fur left an electric charge on its surface, which could then create a spark when brought close to a grounded object. For more about the history of the term ''electricity'', see ''[[History of electricity]]''.
The electron as a unit of charge in electrochemistry was posited by [[G. Johnstone Stoney]] in 1874, who also coined the term ''electron'' in 1894.
{{quote|1=In this paper an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name ''electron''.|2={{Cite journal
| volume = 38
| issue = 5
| pages = 418–420
| last = Stoney
| first = George Johnstone
| authorlink = George Johnstone Stoney
| title = Of the "Electron," or Atom of Electricity
| journal = [[Philosophical Magazine]]
| year = 1894
| month = October
| url = http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Stoney-1894.html
}}}}
During the late 1890s a number of physicists proposed that electricity, as observed in studies of electrical conduction in conductors, electrolytes, and [[cathode ray tube]]s, consisted of discrete units, which were given a variety of names, but the reality of these units had not been confirmed in a compelling way. However, there were also indications that the cathode rays had wavelike properties. In 1896 [[J.J. Thomson]] performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were particles, found an accurate value for their charge-to-mass ratio e/m, and found that e/m was independent of cathode material. He made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he called "corpuscles", had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known (hydrogen). He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials, and by illuminated materials, were universal.
Thomson's 1906 Nobel Prize lecture can be found at http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-lecture.html. He notes that prior to his work: (1) the (negatively charged) cathode was known to be the source of the cathode rays; (2) the cathode rays were known to have the particle-like property of charge; (3) were deflected by a magnetic field like a negatively charged particle; (4) had the wave-like property of being able to penetrate thin metal foils; (5) had not yet been subject to deflection by an electric field.
Thomson succeeded in causing electric deflection because his cathode ray tubes were sufficiently evacuated that they developed only a low density of ions (produced by collisions of the cathode rays with the gas remaining in the tube). Their ion densities were low enough that the gas was a poor conductor, unlike the tubes of previous workers, where the ion density was high enough that the ions could screen out the [[electric field]]. He found that the cathode rays (which he called corpuscles) were deflected by an electric field in the same direction as negatively charged particles would deflect. With the electrons moving along, say, the x-direction, the electric field E pointing along the y-direction, and the magnetic field B pointing along the z-direction, by adjusting the ratio of the magnetic field B to the electric field E he found that the cathode rays moved in a nearly straight line, an indication of a nearly uniform velocity v=E/B for the cathode rays emitted by the cathode. He then removed the magnetic field and measured the deflection of the cathode rays, and from this determined the charge-to-mass ratio e/m for the cathode rays. He writes: "however the cathode rays are produced, we always get the same value of e/m for all the particles in the rays. We may...produce great changes in the velocity of the particles, but unless the velocity of the particles becomes so great that they are moving nearly as fast as light, when other considerations have to be taken into account, the value of e/m is constant. The value of e/m is not merely independent of the velocity...it is independent of the kind of electrodes we use and also of the kind of gas in the tube."
Thomson notes that "corpuscles" are emitted by hot metals and "Corpuscles are also given out by metals and other bodies, but especially by the alkali metals, when these are exposed to light. They are being continually given out in large quantities and with very great velocities by radioactive substances such as uranium and radium; they are produced in large quantities when salts are put into flames, and there is good reason to suppose that corpuscles reach us from the sun." Thomson also describes water drop experiments that enabled him to obtain a value for e that is about twice the modern value, and close to the then current value for the charge on a hydrogen ion in an electrolyte. The electron's charge shortly was more carefully measured by [[Robert Andrews Millikan|R. A. Millikan]] in his [[oil-drop experiment]] of 1909. Oil drops, not subject to evaporation, were more stable than water drops and more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time.
The [[periodic law]] states that the chemical properties of elements largely repeat themselves periodically and is the foundation of the [[periodic table]] of elements. The law itself was initially explained by the [[atomic mass]] of the element. However, as there were anomalies in the periodic table, efforts were made to find a better explanation for it. In 1913, [[Henry Moseley]] introduced the concept of the [[atomic number]] and explained the [[periodic law]] in terms of the number of protons each element has. In the same year, [[Niels Bohr]] showed that electrons are the actual foundation of the table. In 1916, [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] explained the chemical bonding of elements by electronic interactions.
==Classification==
The electron is in the class of subatomic particles called [[lepton]]s, which are believed to be [[fundamental particle]]s.
As with all particles, electrons can also act as waves. This is called the [[wave-particle duality]], also known by the term ''[[complementarity (physics)|complementarity]]'' coined by [[Niels Bohr]], and can be demonstrated using the [[double-slit experiment]].
The antiparticle of an electron is the '''[[positron]]''', which has positive rather than negative charge. The discoverer of the positron, [[Carl D. Anderson]], proposed calling standard electrons '''negatrons''', and using ''electron'' as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants. This usage of the term "negatron" is still occasionally encountered today, and it may also be shortened to "negaton".<ref name="schweber">{{cite book | last = Schweber | first = Silvan S. | title = An Introduction to Relativistic Quantum Field Theory | publisher = [[Dover_Publications]] | year = 2005 | edition = 2nd | origyear=1962 | isbn = 0-486-44228-4}}</ref>
==Properties and behavior==
Electrons have an [[electric charge]] of −[[Orders of magnitude (charge)|1.602 × 10<sup>−19</sup> C]], a mass of [[Orders of magnitude (mass)|9.11 × 10<sup>−31</sup> kg]] based on charge/mass measurements equivalent to a [[rest mass]] of about 0.511 [[MeV]]/[[Speed of light|c]]². The mass of the electron is approximately <sup>1</sup>/<sub>1836</sub> of the mass of the [[proton]]. The common electron symbol is '''e<sup>−</sup>'''.<ref name="nist" /> The electron is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds; the lowest known experimental upper bound for its [[mean lifetime]] is [[Orders of magnitude (time)|4.6×10<sup>26</sup> years]], with a 90% confidence interval (see ''[[Particle decay]]'').
According to [[quantum mechanics]], electrons can be represented by [[wavefunction]]s, from which a calculated probabilistic [[electron density]] can be determined. The [[atomic orbital|orbital]] of each electron in an atom can be described by a wavefunction. Based on the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], the exact [[momentum]] and position of the actual electron cannot be simultaneously determined. This is a limitation which, in this instance, simply states that the more accurately we know a particle's position, the less accurately we can know its momentum, and vice versa.
The electron has [[spin (physics)|spin]] ½ and is a [[fermion]] (it follows [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]]). In addition to its intrinsic angular momentum, an electron has an intrinsic [[magnetic moment]] along its spin axis.
Electrons in an atom are ''bound'' to that atom, while electrons moving freely in vacuum, space or certain media are ''free'' electrons that can be focused into an [[electron beam]]. When free electrons move, there is a [[net flow]] of charge, and this flow is called an [[electric current]]. The [[drift velocity]] of electrons in metal wires is on the order of millimetres per second. However, the speed at which a current at one point in a wire causes a current in other parts of the wire, the [[velocity of propagation]], is typically 75% of light speed.
In some [[superconductor]]s, pairs of electrons move as [[Cooper pair]]s in which their motion is coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called [[phonon]]s. The distance of separation between Cooper pairs is roughly 100 nm.
A body has an [[electric charge]] when that body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than [[proton]]s, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A [[macroscopic]] body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the [[phenomenon]] of [[triboelectricity]].
When electrons and [[positron]]s collide, they [[electron-positron annihilation|annihilate]] each other and produce pairs of high-energy [[photon]]s or other particles. On the other hand, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called [[pair production]], but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus.
The electron is currently described as a [[elementary particle|''fundamental'' or ''elementary'' particle]]. It has no known [[preon|substructure]]. Hence, for convenience, it is usually defined or assumed to be a point-like mathematical [[point charge]], with no [[spatial]] extension. However, when a test particle is forced to approach an electron, we measure changes in its properties ([[electric charge|charge]] and [[mass]]). This effect is common to all elementary particles. Current theory suggests that this effect is due to the influence of [[vacuum fluctuation]]s in its local space, so that the properties measured from a significant distance are considered to be the sum of the bare properties and the vacuum effects (see [[renormalization]]).
The "[[classical electron radius]]" is 2.8179 × 10<sup>−15</sup> [[Metre|m]]. This is the radius that is inferred from the electron's electric charge, by using the [[classical electromagnetism|classical]] theory of [[electrodynamics]] alone, ignoring [[quantum mechanics]]. (In modern physics, the electron is believed to be a [[point particle]], thus its actual radius is zero.) Classical [[electrodynamics]] ([[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s electrodynamics) is the older concept that is widely used for practical applications of electricity, electrical engineering, semiconductor physics, and electromagnetics. [[Quantum electrodynamics]], on the other hand, is useful for applications involving modern particle physics and some aspects of optical, laser and quantum physics.
Based on current theory, the speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, ''c'' (the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum). This limitation is attributed to Einstein's theory of [[special relativity]] which defines the speed of light as a constant within all [[inertial frames]]. However, when [[special relativity|relativistic]] electrons are injected into a [[dielectric]] medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than ''c'', the electrons (temporarily) travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint bluish light called [[Cherenkov radiation]].
The effects of [[special relativity]] are based on a quantity known as [[gamma|γ]] or the [[Lorentz factor]]. γ is a function of ''v'', the coordinate velocity of the particle. It is defined as:
:<math>\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - \left (\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\right )}}.</math>
The kinetic energy of an electron (moving with velocity ''v'') is:
:<math>K = \left(\gamma - 1\right)m_e c^2.</math>
For example, the [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center|Stanford linear accelerator]] can [[accelerate]] an electron to roughly 51 GeV [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/relativity.html]. This gives a gamma of 100,000, since the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV/''c''² (the relativistic momentum of this electron is 100,000 times the classical momentum of an electron at the same speed). Solving the equation above for the speed of the electron (and using an approximation for large ''γ'') gives:
:<math>v = c \sqrt{1-\frac{1}{\gamma^2}} \simeq \left(1-\frac {1} {2} \gamma ^{-2}\right)c = 0.999\,999\,999\,95\,c.</math>
The [[De_Broglie_hypothesis|de Broglie]] wavelength of a particle is λ=h/p where h is [[Planck's constant]] and p is momentum. At low (e.g photoelectron) energies this determines the size of atoms, and at high (e.g. electron microscope) energies this makes the [[Bragg angle]]s for [[electron diffraction]] (co-discovered by [[J. J. Thomson]]'s son [[George_Paget_Thomson|G. P. Thomson]]) well under one degree. Since momentum is mass times [[proper velocity|proper-velocity]] w=γv, we have
:<math>\lambda_e = \frac{h}{p} = \frac{h}{m_e \gamma v} = \frac {h c}{\sqrt{K^2 + 2 K m_e c^2}}.</math>
For the 51 GeV electron above, proper-velocity is approximately γc, making the wavelength of those electrons small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus.
==Visualisation==
The first video images of an electron were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden in February 2008. To capture this event, the scientists used extremely short flashes of light. To produce this light, newly developed technology for generating short pulses from intense laser light, called attosecond pulses, allowed the team at the university’s Faculty of Engineering to capture the electron's motion for the first time.
"It takes about 150 attoseconds for an electron to circle the nucleus of an atom. An attosecond is related to a second as a second is related to the age of the universe," explained Johan Mauritsson, an assistant professor in atomic physics at the Faculty of Engineering, Lund University.
Video is available here (available to UK residents only): [http://www.scenta.co.uk/scenta/news/cit/1716589/star-of-the-show.htm]
==Electrons in chemistry==
In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] showed that electrons are the actual foundation of the periodic table of chemical elements, and, in 1916, [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] explained the [[chemical bond|chemical bonding]] of elements by electronic interactions. From these discoveries it has become clear that electrons, in particular those [[orbit|orbiting]] on the outer shell of the [[atom]], play a fundamental part in [[chemical structure]] and chemical [[interactions]], and that these interactions form the central part of [[chemistry]], without which it could not even exist.
==In practice==
===In the universe===
Scientists believe that the number of electrons existing in the known [[universe]] is at least 10<sup>79</sup>. This number amounts to an average density of about one electron per [[cubic metre]] of space. Astronomers have estimated that 90% of the mass of atoms in the universe is [[hydrogen]], which is made of one electron and one proton.
===In industry===
[[Electron beam]]s are used in [[electron beam welding|welding]], [[electron beam lithography|lithography]], [[scanning electron microscope]]s and [[transmission electron microscope]]s. [[Low-energy electron diffraction|LEED]] and [[RHEED]] are surface-imaging techniques that use electrons.
Electrons are also at the heart of [[cathode ray tube]]s, which are used extensively as display devices in laboratory instruments, [[computer monitor]]s and [[television set]]s. In a [[photomultiplier]] tube, one photon strikes the photocathode, initiating an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current.
===In the laboratory===
The uniquely high charge-to-mass ratio of electrons means that they interact strongly with atoms, and are easy to accelerate and focus with electric and magnetic fields. Hence some of today's [[Transmission_Electron_Aberration-corrected_Microscope|aberration-corrected]] transmission [[electron microscope]]s use 300keV electrons with velocities greater than the speed light travels in water (approximagely 1/2 to 2/3 of c), wavelengths below 2 picometers, transverse coherence-widths over a nanometer, and longitudinal coherence-widths 100 times that. This allows such microscopes to image scattering from individual atomic-nuclei ([[Annular_dark-field_imaging|HAADF]]) as well as interference-contrast from solid-specimen exit-surface deBroglie-phase ([[HRTEM]]) with lateral [[Image_resolution|point-resolutions]] down to 60 picometers. Magnifications approaching 100 million are needed to make the resulting image detail comfortably visible to the naked eye.
Quantum effects of electrons are also used in the [[scanning tunneling microscope]] to study features on solid surfaces with lateral-resolution at the atomic scale (around 200 picometers) and vertical-resolutions much better than that. In such microscopes, the [[quantum tunneling]] is strongly dependent on tip-specimen separation, and, precise control of the separation (vertical sensitivity) is made possible with a [[piezoelectric]] scanner.
===In medicine===
In [[radiation therapy]], electron beams are used for treatment of [[superficial]] tumours.
==In theory==
In Dirac's model, an electron is defined to be a mathematical point, a point-like, charged "bare" particle surrounded by a sea of interacting pairs of virtual [[Elementary particle|particle]]s and [[antiparticle]]s. These provide a correction of just over 0.1% to the predicted value of the electron's [[gyromagnetic ratio]] from exactly 2 (as predicted by Dirac's single-particle model). The extraordinarily precise agreement of this prediction with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of modern physics.<ref name="griffiths">*{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 0-13-805326-X}}
</ref>
In the [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]], the electron is the first-[[generation (particle physics)|generation]] charged [[lepton]]. It forms a [[weak isospin]] doublet with the [[electron neutrino]]; these two particles interact with each other through both the charged and neutral current [[weak interaction]]. The electron is very similar to the two more massive particles of higher generations, the [[muon]] and the [[tau lepton]], which are identical in charge, [[spin (physics)|spin]], and [[fundamental interaction|interaction]], but differ in mass.
The [[antimatter]] counterpart of the electron is the [[positron]]. The positron has the same amount of electrical charge as the electron, except that the charge is positive. It has the same mass and spin as the electron. When an electron and a positron meet, they may [[annihilation|annihilate]] each other, giving rise to two [[Gamma ray|gamma-ray]] photons emitted at roughly 180° to each other. If the electron and positron had negligible momentum, each gamma ray will have an energy of 0.511 [[MeV]]. See also [[Electron-positron annihilation]].
Electrons are a key element in [[electromagnetism]], a theory that is accurate for macroscopic systems, and for classical modelling of microscopic systems.
{{QED}}
==Notes==
<div class="references-small">
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
<references/>
</div>
== See also ==
* [[Electron bubble]]
* [[Elementary charge]]
* [[Exoelectron]]
* [[One-electron universe]]
* [[Pair production]]
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Electron}}
* The NIST’s latest [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?me CODATA value for electron mass]
* [http://www.aip.org/history/electron/ The Discovery of the Electron] from the American Institute of Physics History Center
* [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ Particle Data Group]
* Stoney, G. Johnstone, "''[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Stoney-1894.html Of the 'Electron,' or Atom of Electricity]''". Philosophical Magazine. Series 5, Volume 38, p. 418-420 October 1894.
* Eric Weisstein's World of Physics: [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Electron.html Electron]
* [http://www.educatedearth.net/video.php?id=3573 Researchers Catch Motion of a Single Electron on Video] A FIRST COURSE IN PHYSICS by Robert A. Milliken PhD and Henry G Gale PhD Ginn & Co. 1906
{{Particles}}
[[Category:Electron| ]]
[[Category:Leptons]]
[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[Category:Quantum electrodynamics]]
[[Category:Spintronics]]
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