Endocrine system 9312 226010598 2008-07-16T12:48:48Z 123.23.203.29 /* Pineal body */ [[Image:Illu endocrine system.png|right|thumb|227px|Major endocrine glands. ([[Male]] left, [[female]] on the right.) '''1.''' [[Pineal gland]] '''2.''' [[Pituitary gland]] '''3.''' [[Thyroid gland]] '''4.''' [[Thymus]] '''5.''' [[Adrenal gland]] '''6.''' [[Pancreas]] '''7.''' [[Ovary]] '''8.''' [[Testes]]]] The '''endocrine system''' is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as [[hormone]]s. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating [[metabolism]], [[human development (biology)|growth, development and puberty]], [[tissue (biology)|tissue function]], and also plays a part in determining [[mood]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Collier | first = Judith. et.al | title = Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties 7th edn. | publisher = [[Oxford]] | date = 2006 | pages = 350 -351 | isbn = 0-19-853085-4 }}</ref> The field of [[medicine]] that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is '''[[endocrinology]]''', a branch of the wider field of [[internal medicine]]. ==Function== The Endocrine system is an information signal system much like the [[nervous system]]. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses [[blood vessels]] as information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body release into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones regulate the many and varied functions of an organism, e.g., [[mood]], [[human development (biology)|growth and development]], [[tissue (biology)|tissue function]], and [[metabolism]], as well as sending messages and acting on them. ===Types of signaling=== <!--Cell signaling has a redirection to here--> The typical mode of [[cell signaling]] in the endocrine system is [[endocrine signaling]]. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling.<ref>[http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/public/CourseSitesDocs/CellandTissueStructure/handouts/unrestricted/original/MMHndt_Endocrine.html University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS]</ref> Purely neurocrine signaling between [[neurons]], on the other hand, belongs completely to the [[nervous system]]. ====Endocrine==== {{main|endocrine signaling}} A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example the [[Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]]. Typical endocrine glands are the [[pituitary]], [[thyroid]], and [[adrenal]] glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast [[exocrine gland]]s such as [[salivary gland]]s, [[sweat gland]]s, and [[glands]] within the [[gastrointestinal tract]] tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow [[Lumen (anatomy)|lumen]]. ====Autocrine==== {{Main|Autocrine signalling}} Other signaling can target the same cell. ====Paracrine==== {{Main|Paracrine signalling}} Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby. ====Juxtacrine==== {{Main|Juxtacrine signalling}} Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent. ==Role in disease== {{main|Endocrine diseases}} [[Endocrine diseases|Diseases of the endocrine system]] are common,<ref>{{cite book | last = Kasper ''et al''. | title = Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine | publisher = [[McGraw Hill]] | date = 2005 | pages = 2074 | isbn =0-07-139140-1 }}</ref> including diseases such as [[diabetes mellitus]], [[thyroid]] disease, and [[obesity]]. Endocrine disease is characterised by dysregulated hormone release (a productive [[Pituitary adenoma]]), inappropriate response to signalling ([[Hypothyroidism]]), lack or destruction of a gland ([[Diabetes mellitus type 1]], diminished [[erythropoiesis]] in [[Chronic renal failure]]), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the neck ([[Toxic multinodular goitre]]). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, [[agenesis]], atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, [[hyperplasia|hyperplastic]], or [[neoplastic]] change, or hyperstimulation. Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones. Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the [[Thyroid cancer|thyroid]], and hormones have been implicated in signalling distant tissues to proliferate, for example the [[Estrogen receptor]] has been shown to be involved in certain [[breast cancer]]s. Endocrine, Paracrine, and autocrine signalling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of [[oncogenesis]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Neilson EG, Moses HL | title=TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia.| journal=Science| year=2004 | pages=848–51 | volume= February 6 303(5659) | doi = 10.1126/science.1090922 <!--Retrieved from Yahoo! by DOI bot-->}}</ref> ==Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones== This is a table of the glands of the [[endocrine system]], and their secreted hormones ===[[Hypothalamus]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] | TRH || [[Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus|Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons]] || Release [[thyroid-stimulating hormone]] from [[anterior pituitary]] (primarily) <BR> Stimulate [[prolactin]] release from [[anterior pituitary]]. |- ! [[Gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] | GnRH || Neuroendocine cells of the [[Preoptic area]] || Release of [[Follicle-stimulating hormone|FSH]] and [[Luteinizing hormone|LH]] from [[anterior pituitary]]. |- ! [[Growth hormone-releasing hormone]] | GHRH || Neuroendocrine neurons of the [[Arcuate nucleus]] || Release [[Growth hormone|GH]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |- ! [[Corticotropin-releasing hormone]] | CRH || [[Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus|Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons]] || Release [[Adrenocorticotropic hormone|ACTH]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |- ! [[Vasopressin]] | || [[Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus|Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons]] || Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to water in the nephrons of the kidney, thus increasing water reabsorbiton. |- ! [[Somatostatin]], also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone | SS or GHIH || Neuroendocrince cells of the [[Periventricular nucleus]] || Inhibit release of [[Growth hormone|GH]] and [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone|TSH]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |- ! [[dopamine|Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine]] | PIH or DA || [[Arcuate nucleus|Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus]] || Inhibit release of [[prolactin]] and [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone|TSH]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |- ! [[Prolactin-releasing hormone]] | PRH || || Release [[prolactin]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |} ===[[Pineal body]] (epiphysis)=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Melatonin]] (Primarily) |[[Pinealocytes]] || [[antioxidant]] and causes [[drowsiness]] |} ===[[Pituitary gland]] (hypophysis)=== ====[[Anterior pituitary]] lobe (adenohypophysis)==== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Growth hormone]] | GH || [[Somatotrope]]s || stimulates [[human development (biology)|growth]] and [[cell (biology)|cell]] reproduction Release [[Insulin-like growth factor 1]] from [[liver]] |- ![[Prolactin]] | PRL || [[Lactotrope]]s || milk production in [[mammary glands]] <BR> [[orgasm|sexual gratification]] after [[Human sexual behavior|sexual acts]] |- ! [[Adrenocorticotropic hormone]] or corticotropin | ACTH || [[Corticotrope]]s || synthesis of [[corticosteroid]]s ([[glucocorticoid]]s and [[androgen]]s) in [[Adrenal cortex|adrenocortical cells]] |- ! [[Lipotropin]] | || [[Corticotrope]]s || [[lipolysis]] and [[steroidogenesis]], <BR> stimulates [[melanocytes]] to produce [[melanin]] |- ! [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone]] or thyrotropin | TSH || [[Thyrotrope]]s || stimulates [[thyroid gland]] to secrete [[thyroxine]] (T4) and [[triiodothyronine]] (T3) |- ! [[Follicle-stimulating hormone]] | FSH || [[Gonadotrope]]s || In female: stimulates maturation of [[Graafian follicle]]s in [[ovary]]. In male: [[spermatogenesis]], enhances production of [[androgen-binding protein]] by the [[Sertoli cell]]s of the [[testes]] |- ! [[Luteinizing hormone]] | LH || [[Gonadotrope]]s || In female: [[ovulation]] In male: stimulates [[Leydig cell]] production of [[testosterone]] |} ====[[Posterior pituitary]] lobe (neurohypophysis)==== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Oxytocin]] | || [[Magnocellular neurosecretory cell]]s || Contraction of [[cervix]] and [[vagina]] Involved in [[orgasm]], trust between people.<ref>Kosfeld M ''et al.'' (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 435:673-676. [http://www.iew.unizh.ch/home/kosfeld/papers/ottrust_nature.pdf PDF] PMID 15931222</ref> and [[Circadian#Animal circadian rhythms|circadian homeostasis]] (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness).<ref>[http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=C001082B-2B35-221B-641CA6ED64E8BCF3 Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft]</ref> release breast milk |- ! [[Vasopressin]] or antidiuretic hormone | AVP or ADH || [[Magnocellular neurosecretory cell]]s || retention of water in [[kidney]]s moderate [[vasoconstriction]] |} Oxytocin and Anti-Diuretic Hormone are not secreted in the posterior lobe, merely stored. ====[[Pars intermedia|Intermediate pituitary]] lobe (pars intermedia)==== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Melanocyte-stimulating hormone]] | MSH || [[Melanotroph]] || [[melanogenesis]] by [[melanocyte]]s in [[skin]] and [[hair]]. |} ===[[Thyroid]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ![[Triiodothyronine]] | T3 || [[Thyroid epithelial cell]] || potent form of [[thyroid hormone]]: increase the [[basal metabolic rate]] & sensitivity to [[catecholamine]]s, affect [[protein synthesis]] |- ! [[Thyroxine]] or tetraiodothyronine | T4 || [[Thyroid epithelial cell]]''s || less active form of [[thyroid hormone]]: increase the [[basal metabolic rate]] & sensitivity to [[catecholamine]]s, affect [[protein synthesis]], often functions as a [[prohormone]] |- ! [[Calcitonin]] | || [[Parafollicular cell]]''s || Construct bone reduce blood [[calcium|Ca<sup>2+</sup>]] |} ===[[Parathyroid]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Parathyroid hormone]] | PTH || [[Parathyroid chief cell]] || increase blood [[calcium|Ca<sup>2+</sup>]]: *indirectly stimulate [[osteoclast]]s * Ca<sup>2+</sup> reabsorption in [[kidney]] * activate [[vitamin D]] (Slightly) decrease blood [[phosphate]]: * (decreased reuptake in [[kidney]] but increased uptake from bones * activate [[vitamin D]]) |} ===[[Heart]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Atrial-natriuretic peptide]] | ANP || [[Cardiac muscle|Cardiac myocytes]] || Reduce [[blood pressure]] by: reducing [[systemic circulation|systemic]] [[vascular resistance]], reducing blood water, sodium and [[blood fats|fats]] |- ! [[Brain natriuretic peptide]] | BNP || [[Cardiac muscle|Cardiac myocytes]] || (To a minor degree than ANP) reduce [[blood pressure]] by: reducing [[systemic circulation|systemic]] [[vascular resistance]], reducing blood water, sodium and [[blood fats|fats]] |- |} ===[[Striated muscle]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Thrombopoietin]] | [[Myocyte]]s || stimulates [[megakaryocyte]]s to produce [[platelets]]<ref name=Kaushansky2006>Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. ''[[N Engl J Med]]'' 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.</ref> |} ===[[Skin]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !!From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Calcidiol]] (25-hydroxyvitamin D<sub>3</sub>) | || Inactive form of [[Vitamin D3]] |} ===[[Adipose tissue]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ![[Leptin]] (Primarily) |[[Adipocyte]]s || decrease of [[appetite]] and increase of [[metabolism]]. |- ! [[Estrogen]]s<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=15320786&ordinalpos=6&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors.] Frühbeck G. (Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004 Jul;2(3):197-208.)</ref> (mainly [[Estrone]]) |[[Adipocyte]]s || |} ===[[Stomach]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Gastrin]] (Primarily) | || [[G cell]]s || Secretion of [[gastric acid]] by [[parietal cell]]s |- ! [[Ghrelin]] | || [[P/D1 cell]]s || Stimulate [[appetite]], secretion of [[growth hormone]] from [[anterior pituitary gland]] |- ! [[Neuropeptide Y]] | NPY || || increased food intake and decreased physical activity |- ! [[Secretin]] | || [[S cell]]s || Secretion of [[bicarbonate]] from [[liver]], [[pancreas]] and duodenal [[Brunner's gland]]s Enhances effects of [[cholecystokinin]] Stops production of gastric juice |- ! [[Somatostatin]] | || [[D cell]]s || Suppress release of [[gastrin]], [[cholecystokinin]] (CCK), [[secretin]], [[motilin]], [[vasoactive intestinal peptide]] (VIP), [[gastric inhibitory polypeptide]] (GIP), [[enteroglucagon]] Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces [[smooth muscle]] contractions and blood flow within the intestine<ref name="Colorado"> http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin </ref> |- ! [[Histamine]] | || [[ECL cell]]s || stimulate [[gastric acid]] secretion |- ! [[Endothelin]] | || [[X cell]]s || [[Smooth muscle]] contraction of stomach<ref>[http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jsmr/41/1/41_35/_article Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats] Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1) </ref> |} ===[[Duodenum]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Cholecystokinin]] |[[I cell]]s || Release of digestive [[enzyme]]s from [[pancreas]] Release of [[bile]] from [[gallbladder]] [[hunger]] suppressant |} ===[[Liver]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Insulin-like growth factor]] (or somatomedin) (Primarily) | IGF || [[Hepatocyte]]s || insulin-like effects regulate [[cell growth]] and development |- ! [[Angiotensinogen]] and [[angiotensin]] | || [[Hepatocyte]]s || [[vasoconstriction]] release of [[aldosterone]] from [[adrenal cortex]] [[dipsogen]]. |- ! [[Thrombopoietin]] | || [[Hepatocyte]]s || stimulates [[megakaryocyte]]s to produce [[platelets]]<ref name=Kaushansky2006>Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. ''[[N Engl J Med]]'' 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.</ref> |} ===[[Pancreas]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Insulin]] (Primarily) |[[Beta cell|ß Islet cells]] || Intake of [[glucose]], [[glycogenesis]] and [[glycolysis]] in [[liver]] and [[muscle]] from blood intake of [[lipid]]s and synthesis of [[triglyceride]]s in [[adipocytes]] Other [[anabolism|anabolic]] effects |- ! [[Glucagon]] (Also Primarily) |[[Alpha cell|a Islet cells]] || [[glycogenolysis]] and [[gluconeogenesis]] in [[liver]] increases blood glucose level |- ! [[Somatostatin]] |[[Delta cell|d Islet cells]] || Inhibit release of [[insulin]]<ref name="GP5417">{{GeorgiaPhysiology|5/5ch4/s5ch4_17}}</ref> Inhibit release of [[glucagon]]<ref name="GP5417" /> Suppress the exocrine secretory action of [[pancreas]]. |- ! [[Pancreatic polypeptide]] | [[PP cell]]s || Unknown |} ===[[Kidney]]=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Renin]] (Primarily) | [[Juxtaglomerular cell]]s || Activates the [[renin-angiotensin system]] by producing [[angiotensin I]] of [[angiotensinogen]] |- ! [[Erythropoietin]] (EPO) | [[Extraglomerular mesangial cell]]s || Stimulate [[erythrocyte]] production |- ! [[Calcitriol]] (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D<sub>3</sub>) | || Active form of [[vitamin D3]] Increase absorption of [[calcium]] and [[phosphate]] from [[gastrointestinal tract]] and [[kidneys]] inhibit release of [[parathyroid hormone|PTH]] |- ! [[Thrombopoietin]] | || stimulates [[megakaryocyte]]s to produce [[platelets]]<ref name=Kaushansky2006>Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. ''[[N Engl J Med]]'' 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.</ref> |} ===[[Adrenal gland]]s=== ====[[Adrenal cortex]]==== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Glucocorticoid]]s (chiefly [[cortisol]]) | [[zona fasciculata]] and [[zona reticularis]] cells || Stimulation of [[gluconeogenesis]] Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and [[adipose]] tissue Mobilization of [[amino acids]] from [[Wiktionary:extrahepatic|extrahepatic]] tissues Stimulation of [[fat breakdown]] in adipose tissue [[anti-inflammatory]] and [[immunosuppressive]] |- ! [[Mineralocorticoid]]s (chiefly [[aldosterone]]) | [[Zona glomerulosa]] cells || Increase [[blood volume]] by reabsorption of [[sodium]] in [[kidneys]] (primarily) [[Potassium]] and [[Hydrogen ion|H<sup>+</sup>]] secretion in kidney. |- ! [[Androgen]]s (including [[dehydroepiandrosterone|DHEA]] and [[testosterone]]) | [[Zona fasciculata]] and [[Zona reticularis]] cells || [[Virilization]], [[anabolic]] |} ====[[Adrenal medulla]]==== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Adrenaline]] (epinephrine) (Primarily) |[[Chromaffin cell]]s || [[Fight-or-flight response]]: *Boost the supply of [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] to the [[brain]] and [[muscles]] (by increasing [[heart rate]] and [[stroke volume]], [[vasodilation]], increasing [[catalysis]] of [[glycogen]] in liver, breakdown of [[lipid]]s in [[adipocyte|fat cells]]) *Dilate the [[pupil]]s *Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., [[digestion]]) *Suppress [[immune system]] |- ! [[Noradrenaline]] (norepinephrine) | [[Chromaffin cell]]s || [[Fight-or-flight response]]: *Boost the supply of [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] to the [[brain]] and [[muscles]] (by increasing [[heart rate]] and [[stroke volume]], [[vasoconstriction]] and increased [[blood pressure]], breakdown of [[lipid]]s in [[adipocyte|fat cells]]) *Increase [[skeletal muscle]] readiness. |- ! [[Dopamine]] | [[Chromaffin cell]]s || Increase [[heart]] rate and [[blood pressure]] |- ! [[Enkephalin]] | [[Chromaffin cell]]s || Regulate pain |} {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Androgen]]s (chiefly [[testosterone]]) | [[Leydig cell]]s || [[Anabolic]]: growth of [[muscle mass]] and strength, increased [[bone density]], growth and strength, [[Virilizing]]: [[maturation]] of [[sex organs]], formation of [[scrotum]], deepening of voice, growth of [[beard]] and [[axillary hair]]. |- ! [[Estradiol]] | [[Sertoli cell]]s || Prevent [[apoptosis]] of germ cells<ref>Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis ''in vitro''. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196</ref> |- ! [[Inhibin]] | [[Sertoli cell]]s | Inhibit production of [[follicle stimulating hormone|FSH]] |} ===[[Ovary]]=== <!--Ovarian hormones redirects here--> These originate either from the [[ovarian follicle]] or the [[corpus luteum]]. {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Progesterone]] | [[Granulosa cells]], [[Theca interna|theca cells]] || Support [[pregnancy]]<ref name="colostate">[http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/placenta/endocrine.html Placental Hormones<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>: *Convert [[uterine lining|endometrium]] to secretory stage *Make [[Cervix#Cervical_mucus|cervical mucus]] permeable to sperm. *Inhibit [[immune system|immune]] response, e.g., towards the [[human embryo]] *Decrease uterine [[smooth muscle]] contractility<ref name="colostate" /> *Inhibit [[lactation]] *Inhibit onset of [[labor (childbirth)|labor]]. Other: *Raise [[epidermal growth factor-1]] levels *Increase core temperature during ovulation<ref name="GeorgiaPhysiology">{{GeorgiaPhysiology|5/5ch9/s5ch9_13}}</ref> *Reduce [[spasm]] and relax [[smooth muscle]] (widen [[bronchi]] and regulate [[mucus]]) [[Inflammation|Anti-inflammatory]] *Reduce [[gall-bladder]] activity<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W |title=Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility |journal=J Surg Res |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=505–12 |year=1988 |pmid=3184927 |doi=10.1016/0022-4804(88)90137-0}}</ref> *Normalize [[blood]] clotting and vascular tone, [[zinc]] and [[copper]] levels, [[cell (biology)|cell]] [[oxygen]] levels, and use of fat stores for energy *Assist in [[thyroid]] function and [[bone]] growth by [[osteoblast]]s *Increase [[resilience]] in [[bone]], [[teeth]], [[gingiva|gum]]s, [[joint]], [[tendon]], [[ligament]], and [[skin]] *Promote healing by regulating [[collagen]] *Provide nerve function and healing by regulating [[myelin]] *Prevent [[endometrial cancer]] by regulating effects of estrogen |- ! [[Androstenedione]] | [[Theca interna|Theca cells]] || Substrate for [[estrogen]] |- ! [[Estrogens]] (mainly [[estradiol]]) | [[Granulosa cells]] || Structural: * Promote formation of female [[secondary sex characteristics]] * Accelerate [[height]] growth * Accelerate [[metabolism]] (burn fat) * Reduce [[muscle]] mass * Stimulate [[endometrium|endometrial]] growth * Increase [[uterus|uterine]] growth * Maintain [[blood vessel]]s and skin * Reduce [[bone resorption]], increase bone formation [[Protein]] synthesis: * Increase hepatic production of binding proteins [[Coagulation]]: * Increase circulating level of [[coagulation factor|factors]] [[factor II|2]], [[factor VII|7]], [[factor IX|9]], [[factor X|10]], [[antithrombin]] III, [[plasminogen]] * Increase [[platelet]] adhesiveness * Increase [[high-density lipoprotein|HDL]], [[triglyceride]], [[height]] growth * Decrease [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL]], [[fat]] deposition Fluid balance: * Regulate salt ([[sodium]]) and water retention * Increase [[growth hormone]] * Increase [[cortisol]], [[SHBG]] Gastrointestinal tract: * Reduce bowel motility * Increase cholesterol in [[bile]] Melanin: * Increase [[pheomelanin]], reduce [[eumelanin]] Cancer: * Support [[hormone-sensitive]] [[breast cancer]]s <ref>[http://www.breastcancer.org/tre_sys_hrt_idx.html Hormonal Therapy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.) Lung function: *Promote lung function by supporting [[alveoli]].<ref>{{cite journal | author=Massaro D, Massaro GD | title=Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice | journal=American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology | volume=287 | issue=6 | year=2004 | pages=L1154–9 | pmid=15298854 doi= 10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004 | doi=10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004 }}</ref> |- ! [[Inhibin]] | [[Granulosa cells]] || Inhibit production of [[follicle stimulating hormone|FSH]] from [[anterior pituitary]] |} ===[[Placenta]] (when [[pregnant]])=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Progesterone]] (Primarily) | || || Support [[pregnancy]]<ref name="colostate">[http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/placenta/endocrine.html Placental Hormones<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>: *Inhibit [[immune system|immune]] response, towards the [[fetus]]. *Decrease uterine [[smooth muscle]] contractility<ref name="colostate" /> *Inhibit [[lactation]] *Inhibit onset of [[labor (childbirth)|labor]]. *Support [[fetal]] production of [[adrenal]] mineralo- and glucosteroids. Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone |- ! [[Estrogen]]s (mainly [[Estriol]]) (Also Primarily) | || || Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen |- ! [[Human chorionic gonadotropin]] | HCG || [[Syncytiotrophoblast]] || promote maintenance of [[corpus luteum]] during beginning of [[pregnancy]] Inhibit [[immune system|immune]] response, towards the [[human embryo]]. |- ! [[Human placental lactogen]] | HPL || [[Syncytiotrophoblast]] || increase production of [[insulin]] and [[IGF-1]] increase [[insulin resistance]] and [[carbohydrate]] intolerance |- ! [[Inhibin]] | || Fetal [[Trophoblast]]s || suppress [[follicle stimulating hormone|FSH]] |} ===[[Uterus]] (when [[pregnant]])=== {| class="wikitable" width=100% ! Secreted hormone !! Abbreviation !! From cells !! Effect |- ! [[Prolactin]] | PRL || [[Decidual cells]] || milk production in [[mammary glands]] |- ! [[Relaxin]] | || [[Decidual cells]] || Unclear in humans |} ==See also== * [[Releasing hormone]]s * [[Neuroendocrinology]] * [[Nervous system]] * [[Endocrine disruptor]] * [[Major systems of the human body]] ==External links== * [http://www.nature.com/ncpendmet/index.html Journals Designed for Clinical Endocrinologists] *[http://www.antibodypatterns.com/ICA.php Islet cell antibody] *[http://www.ii.bham.ac.uk/clinicalimmunology/CISimagelibrary/ICA.htm Binding of antibody to pancreas] *[http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/endocrine.html Kidshealth.org] ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{organ systems}} {{endocrine system}} {{Hormones}} {{Endocrine pathology}} {{Cell signaling}} {{Endocrine system intervention}} [[Category:Endocrine system| ]] [[Category:Metabolic disorders]] [[ar:جهاز غدد صماء]] [[bs:Endokrini sistem]] [[bg:Ендокринна система]] [[ca:Sistema endocrí]] [[cs:Soustava žláz s vnitřní sekrecí]] [[da:Endokrine system]] [[de:Endokrines System]] [[es:Sistema endocrino]] [[eo:Endokrina sistemo]] [[eu:Sistema endokrino]] [[fr:Système endocrinien]] [[id:Sistem endokrin]] [[is:Innkirtlakerfið]] [[it:Sistema endocrino]] [[he:המערכת האנדוקרינית]] [[lv:Endokrīnā sistēma]] [[lt:Endokrininė sistema]] [[hu:Belső elválasztású mirigyek]] [[mk:Ендокрин систем]] [[nl:Endocrien systeem]] [[ja:内分泌器]] [[no:Det endokrine system]] [[pl:Układ hormonalny]] [[pt:Sistema endócrino]] [[ru:Эндокринная система]] [[simple:Endocrine system]] [[sk:Endokrinná sústava]] [[sl:Endokrini sistem]] [[sr:Ендокрини систем]] [[fi:Umpieritysjärjestelmä]] [[sv:Endokrina systemet]] [[tl:Sistemang endokrin]] [[ta:அகச்சுரப்பித் தொகுதி]] [[th:ต่อมหมวกไต]] [[tr:Endokrin sistem]] [[zh:內分泌系統]]