Energy conservation
478933
224267111
2008-07-08T02:03:40Z
Senator Palpatine
7357381
Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chrome angel 08|Chrome angel 08]] to last version by NJGW (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
{{otheruses4|decreasing energy consumption|the law of conservation of energy in physics|Conservation of energy}}
{{Globalize}}
'''Energy conservation''' is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved
through [[efficient energy use]], in which case energy use is decreased while achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced consumption of energy services. Energy conservation may result in increase of [[financial capital]], [[Natural environment|environmental]] value, [[national security]], [[personal security]], and [[Thermal comfort|human comfort]]. Individuals and organizations that are direct [[consumers]] of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.
Energy conservation is an important element of [[energy policy]]. Energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita, and thus offsets the growth in energy supply needed to keep up with population growth. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred methods of energy production.
By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important part of lessening [[climate change]]. Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of [[non-renewable resources]] with [[renewable energy]]. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to [[energy shortage]]s, and is a more environmentally benign alternative to increased energy production.
==Energy efficiency trends in the United States==
The United States is currently the largest single consumer of energy. The [[U.S. Department of Energy]] categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec1_3.pdf Annual Energy Report]" (July 2006), Energy Flow diagram</ref>
[[Image:USEnFlow02-quads.gif|right|thumb|350px|U.S. Energy Flow Trends - 2002. Note that the breakdown of useful and waste energy in each sector (yellow vs. grey) is estimated arbitrarily and is not based on data.]] [[Image:USenergy2004.jpg|right|thumb|225px]]
Energy usage in transportation and residential sectors(about half of U.S. energy consumption) is largely controlled by individual domestic consumers. Commercial and industrial energy expenditures are determined by businesses entities and other facility managers. National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.
===Transportation===
The transportation includes all [[vehicle]]s used for personal or freight transportation. Of the energy used in this sector, approximately 65% is consumed by [[gasoline]]-powered vehicles, primarily personally owned. [[Diesel]]-powered transport (trains, merchant ships, heavy trucks, etc.) consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15%.<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/aeo/pdf/appendixes.pdf Annual Energy Outlook]" (February 2006), Table A2</ref>
The [[oil crisis|oil supply crises]] of the 1970s spurred the creation, in 1975, of the federal [[Corporate Average Fuel Economy]] (CAFE) program, which required auto manufacturers to meet progressively higher fleet fuel economy targets. The next decade saw dramatic improvements in fuel economy, mostly the result of reductions in vehicle size and weight which originated in the late 1970s, along with the transition to [[front wheel drive]]. These gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of [[sport utility vehicle]]s, [[pickup truck]]s and [[minivan]]s, which fall under the more lenient "light truck" CAFE standard.
In addition to the CAFE program, the U.S. government has tried to encourage better vehicle efficiency through tax policy. Since 2002, taxpayers have been eligible for income tax credits for gas/electric hybrid vehicles. A "[[gas-guzzler]]" tax has been assessed on manufacturers since 1978 for cars with exceptionally poor fuel economy. While this tax remains in effect, it currently generates very little revenue as overall fuel economy has improved. The gas-guzzler tax ended the reign of large cubic-inched engines from the [[musclecar]] era.
Another focus in gasoline conservation is reducing the number of miles driven. An estimated 40% of American automobile use is associated with daily [[commuting]]. Many urban areas offer [[subsidy|subsidized]] [[public transportation]] to reduce commuting traffic, and encourage [[carpool]]ing by providing designated [[high-occupancy vehicle]] lanes and lower tolls for cars with multiple riders.
In recent years [[telecommuting]] has also become a viable alternative to commuting for some jobs, but as of 2003 only 3.5% of workers were telecommuters. Ironically, hundreds of thousands of American and European workers have been replaced by workers in [[Asia]] who telecommute from thousands of miles away.
A vehicle's gas mileage normally decreases rapidly at speeds above 55 miles per hour. A car or truck moving at {{convert|55|mi|km}} an hour can get about 15 percent better fuel economy than the same car going {{convert|65|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each {{convert|5|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} you drive over {{convert|60|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} is similar to paying an additional $0.21 per gallon for gas <ref>[http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/transportation/consumer_tips/speeding_and_mpg.html Speeding and Your Vehicle's Mileage<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> (not true for all vehicles, some may attain maximum fuel efficiency at a higher speed than {{convert|60|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}{{Fact|date=January 2008}}).
===Residential sector===
The residential sector refers to all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories. Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences and different regulation. On average, about half of the energy used in U.S. homes is expended on space conditioning (i.e. heating and cooling).
The efficiency of [[furnace]]s and [[air conditioner]]s has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s. The 1987 National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorized the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space conditioning equipment and other appliances each year, based on what is "technologically feasible and economically justified". Beyond these minimum standards, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] awards the [[Energy Star]] designation to appliances that exceed industry efficiency averages by an EPA-specified percentage.
Despite technological improvements, many American lifestyle changes have put higher demands on heating and cooling resources. The average size of homes built in the United States has increased significantly, from {{convert|1500|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} in 1970 to {{convert|2300|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} in 2005. The single-person household has become more common, as has central air conditioning: 23% of households had central air conditioning in 1978, that figure rose to 55% by 2001.
As furnace efficiency gets higher, there is limited room for improvement--efficiencies above 85% are now common. However, improving the [[building envelope]] through better or more [[building insulation|insulation]], advanced windows, etc., can allow larger improvements. The [[passive house]] approach produces [[superinsulation|superinsulated]] buildings that approach [[Zero-energy building|zero net energy consumption]]. Improving the building envelope can also be cheaper than replacing a furnace or air conditioner.
Even lower cost improvements include [[weatherization]], which is frequently subsidized by utilities or state/federal [[tax credits]], as are programmable [[thermostat]]s. Consumers have also been urged to adopt a wider indoor temperature range (e.g. {{convert|65|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in the winter, {{convert|80|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in the summer).
One underutilized, but potentially very powerful means to reduce household energy consumption is to provide real-time feedback to homeowners so they can effectively alter their energy using behavior. Recently, low cost energy feedback displays, such as [[The Energy Detective]] or wattson [http://www.diykyoto.com], have become available. A study of a similar device deployed in 500 Ontario homes by ''Hydro One'' [http://www.energetics.com/madri/pdfs/ChartwellHydroOneMonitoringProgram.pdf] showed an average 6.5% drop in total electricity use when compared with a similarly sized control group.
[[Standby power]] used by consumer electronics and appliances while they are turned off accounts for an estimated 5 to 10% of household electricity consumption, adding an estimated $3 billion to annual energy costs in the USA. "In the average home, 75% of the electricity used to power home electronics is consumed while the products are turned off." [http://www1.eere.energy.gov/consumer/tips/home_office.html]
====Home energy consumption averages:<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/docs/1.2.3.pdf Buildings Energy Data Book]" (August 2005), sec. 1.2.3</ref>====
{{Wikibooks|How to reduce energy usage}}
* Space conditioning, 44%
* Water heating, 13%
* Lighting, 12%
* Refrigeration, 8%
* Home electronics, 6%
* Laundry appliances, 5%
* Kitchen appliances, 4%
* Other uses, 8%
Energy usage in some homes may vary widely from these averages. For example, milder regions such as the southern U.S. and Pacific coast of the USA need far less energy for space conditioning than New York City or Chicago. On the other hand, air conditioning energy use can be quite high in hot-arid regions (Southwest) and hot-humid zones (Southeast) In milder climates such as San Diego, lighting energy may easily consume up to 40% of total energy. Certain appliances such as a waterbed, hot tub, or pre-1990 refrigerator use significant amounts of electricity. However, recent trends in home entertainment equipment can make a large difference in household energy use. For instance a 50" LCD television (average on-time= 6 hours a day) may draw 300 Watts less than a similarly sized plasma system. In most residences no single appliance dominates, and any conservation efforts must be directed to numerous areas in order to achieve substantial energy savings. However, Ground and Water Source Heat Pump systems are the more energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available (Environmental Protection Agency), and can achieve reductions in energy consumptions of up to 69%.
====Best building practices====
Current best practices in building design and construction result in homes that are profoundly more energy conserving than average new homes. See [[Passive house]], [[Superinsulation]], [[Self-sufficient homes]], [[Zero energy building]], [[Earthship]], [[MIT Design Advisor]], [[Energy Conservation Building Code|Energy Conservation Code for Indian Commercial Buildings]].
Smart ways to construct homes such that minimal resources are used to cooling and heating the house in summer and winter respectively can significantly reduce energy costs.
===Commercial sector===
The commercial sector consists of retail stores, offices (business and government), restaurants, schools and other workplaces. Energy in this sector has the same basic end uses as the residential sector, in slightly different proportions. Space conditioning is again the single biggest consumption area, but it represents only about 30% of the energy use of commercial buildings. Lighting, at 25%, plays a much larger role than it does in the residential sector.<ref>US Dept. of Energy, "[http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/docs/1.3.3.pdf Buildings Energy Data Book]" (August 2005), sec. 1.3.3</ref> Lighting is also generally the most wasteful component of commercial use. A number of case studies indicate that more efficient lighting and elimination of [[over-illumination]] can reduce lighting energy by approximately fifty percent in many commercial buildings.
Commercial buildings can greatly increase energy efficiency by thoughtful design, with today's building stock being very poor examples of the potential of systematic (not expensive) energy efficient design (Steffy, 1997). Commercial buildings often have professional management, allowing centralized control and coordination of energy conservation efforts. As a result, [[fluorescent lighting]] (about four times as efficient as incandescent) is the standard for most commercial space, although it may produce certain adverse health effects.<ref>Susan L. Burks, ''Managing your Migraine'', Humana Press, New Jersey (1994) ISBN 0-89603-277-9</ref><ref name="Cambridge">''Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine'', edited by Andrew Baum, Robert West, John Weinman, Stanton Newman, Chris McManus, Cambridge University Press (1997) ISBN 0-521-43686-9</ref><ref name="Pijnenburg">L. Pijnenburg, M. Camps and G. Jongmans-Liedekerken, ''Looking closer at assimilation lighting'', Venlo, GGD, Noord-Limburg (1991)</ref><ref name="Knez">Igor Knez, ''Effects of colour of light on nonvisual psychological processes'', Journal of Environmental Psychology, Volume 21, Issue 2, June 2001, Pages 201-208</ref> Potential health concerns can be mitigated by using newer fixtures with electronic ballasts rather than older magenetic ballasts. As most buildings have consistent hours of operation, programmed thermostats and lighting controls are common. However, too many companies believe that merely having a computer controlled [[Building automation]] system guarantees energy efficiency. As an example one large company in Northern California boasted that it was confident its state of the art system had optimized space heating. A more careful analysis by Lumina Technologies showed the system had been given programming instructions to maintain constant 24 hour temperatures in the entire building complex. This instruction caused the injection of nighttime heat into vacant buildings when the daytime summer temperatures would often exceed {{convert|90|°F|°C}}. This mis-programming was costing the company over $130,000 per year in wasted energy (Lumina Technologies, 1997). Many corporations and governments also require the Energy Star rating for any new equipment purchased for their buildings.
Solar heat loading through standard window designs usually leads to high demand for air conditioning in summer months. An example of building design overcoming this excessive heat loading is the [[Dakin Building]] in [[Brisbane, California]], where fenestration was designed to achieve an angle with respect to sun incidence to allow maximum reflection of solar heat; this design also assisted in reducing interior [[over-illumination]] to enhance worker efficiency and comfort.
Recent advances include use of occupancy sensors to turn off lights when spaces are unoccupied, and photosensors to dim or turn off electric lighting when natural light is available. In air conditioning systems, overall equipment efficiencies have increased as energy codes and consumer information have begun to emphasise year round performance rather than just efficiency ratings at maximum output. Controllers that automatically vary the speeds of fans, pumps, and compressors have radically improved part-load performance of those devices. For space or water heating, electric heat pumps consume roughly half the energy required by electric resistance heaters. Natural gas heating efficiencies have improved through use of condensing furnaces and boilers, in which the water vapor in the flue gas is cooled to liquid form before it is discharged, allowing the heat of condensation to be used. In buildings where high levels of outside air are required, heat exchangers can capture heat from the exhaust air to preheat incoming supply air.
===Industrial sector===
The industrial sector represents all production and processing of goods, including manufacturing, construction, farming, water management and mining. Increasing costs have forced energy-intensive industries to make substantial efficiency improvements in the past 30 years. For example, the energy used to produce steel and paper products has been cut 40% in that time frame, while petroleum/aluminum refining and cement production have reduced their usage by about 25%. These reductions are largely the result of recycling waste material and the use of [[cogeneration]] equipment for electricity and heating.
The energy required for delivery and treatment of fresh water often constitutes a significant percentage of a region's electricity and natural gas usage (an estimated 20% of California's total energy use is water-related.<ref>California Energy Commission, "[http://www.energy.ca.gov/2005publications/CEC-700-2005-011/CEC-700-2005-011-SF.PDF California's Water-Energy Relationship]" (November 2005), p.8</ref>) In light of this, some local governments have worked toward a more integrated approach to energy and [[water conservation]] efforts.
Unlike the other sectors, total energy use in the industrial sector has declined in the last decade. While this is partly due to conservation efforts, it's also a reflection of the growing trend for U.S. companies to move manufacturing operations overseas.
==Energy conservation in the United Kingdom==
{{main|Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom}}
Energy conservation in the [[United Kingdom]] has been receiving increased attention over recent years. Key factors behind this are the Government's commitment to reducing [[carbon dioxide|carbon emissions]], the projected 'energy gap' in UK electricity generation, and the increasing reliance on imports to meet national energy needs. Domestic housing and road transport are currently the two biggest problem areas.
==Jevons paradox==
{{main|Jevons paradox}}
Standard [[Economics|economic]] theory suggests that technological improvements that increase energy efficiency will tend to increase, rather than reduce energy use. This was first observed by [[William Stanley Jevons]] in 1865 and is called the ''[[Jevons Paradox]]''. In [[William Stanley Jevons#The Coal Question|''The Coal Question'']], Jevons argued that, "It is a confusion of ideas to suppose that economical use of fuel is equivalent to diminished consumption. The very contrary is the truth."
The Jevons paradox was later revisited by the economists Daniel Khazzoom and Leonard Brookes in a series of papers about energy conservation. In 1992, the US economist [[Harry Saunders]] dubbed this hypothesis the ''[[Khazzoom-Brookes postulate|Khazzoom-Brookes Postulate]]'', and showed that it was true under a wide range of assumptions.<ref>Harry D. Saunders, "The Khazzoom-Brookes postulate and neoclassical growth." ''The Energy Journal'', October 1, 1992.</ref> Increased energy efficiency tends to increase energy consumption by two means. Firstly, increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper, thus encouraging increased use. Secondly, increased energy efficiency leads to increased economic growth, which pulls up energy use in the whole economy.
This does not imply that increased fuel efficiency is worthless. Increased fuel efficiency enables greater production and a higher quality of life. For example, a more efficient steam engine allowed the cheaper transport of goods and people that contributed to the [[Industrial Revolution]]. However, energy conservation cannot be achieved through increased efficiency alone. In order for efficiency gains to improve energy conservation, the ecological economists Mathias Wackernagel and William Rees suggest that cost savings from efficiency gains be "taxed away or otherwise removed from further economic circulation. Preferably they should be captured for reinvestment in natural capital rehabilitation."<ref>Wackernagel, Mathis and William Rees, 1997, "Perpetual and structural barriers to investing in natural capital: economics from an ecological footprint perspective." ''Ecological Economics'', Vol.20 No.3 p3-24.</ref>
==Issues with energy conservation==
Critics and advocates of some forms of energy conservation make the following arguments:
* It may be difficult for home owners or small business to justify investment in some energy saving measures. Often the available money has higher priorities, and in many cases the time and cost investment is not worthwhile.
* [[Condensing boilers]] are much more efficient than older types. Energy savings are achieved by extracting more heat, venting less heat externally. However the increased complexity results in more frequent breakdowns and much higher total servicing costs, and whether the end result is a gain is debated.
* Refrigeration is also a major factor of energy consumption, electronic [[Energy saving modules]] (ESM) can be added to some existing [[HVAC]] and [[refrigeration]] systems at little cost to conserve electricity.
* Some retailers argue that bright lighting stimulates purchasing. Health studies have demonstrated that [[headache]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]], [[blood pressure]], fatigue and worker error all generally increase with the common [[over-illumination]] present in many workplace and retail settings (Davis, 2001), (Bain, 1997). It has been shown that natural daylighting increases productivity levels of workers, while reducing energy consumption.<ref>Lumina Technologies Inc., Santa Rosa, Ca., ''Survey of 156 California commercial buildings energy use'', August, 1996</ref> Consumers are also motivated by a number of factors, and corporate stewardship may provide an incentive for shoppers to visit stores who conserve energy. Some believe lower overhead costs may allow retailers to lower prices, stimulating consumption, however few business managers seem to agree with this view.
* The use of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day. <ref>[http://www.workforce.com/section/09/feature/24/82/47/index.html Best Buy Optimas Award Winner for 2007]</ref>
* Electric motors consume more than 60% of all electrical energy generated and are responsible for the loss of 10 to 20% of all electricity converted into mechanical energy. <ref>European Commission of the Institute for Environment and Sustainability, "Electricity Consumption and Efficiency Trends in the Enlarged European Union http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/energyefficiency/pdf/EnEff%20Report%202006.pdf]", 2006</ref> No doubt, electricity consumption and associated loss by electric motors will continually grow; particularly, as the transportion sector moves to vehicles with electric drivetrains. Migrating or retrofitting any applied base of electric motors (and electric generators) with energy efficient electric motor and generator technology and systems, such as the [[brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine| brushless wound rotor doubly fed electric motor or generator]], can dramatically reduce energy consumption and resulting emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) to the atmosphere. As a bonus, the technology can have a payback period of less than a year depending on use factors.
==See also==
{{Portalpar|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}}
{{portal|Energy}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:4; column-count:4;">
* [[Annual fuel utilization efficiency]] (AFUE)
* [[Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine]]
* [[Efficient energy use]]
* [[Energy crisis]]
* [[Energy efficiency]]
* [[Energy-efficient landscaping]]
* [[Energy Saving Modules]]
* [[Energy-Service Company]]
* [[Fuel economy]]
* [[Fuel efficiency]]
* [[Lighting]]
** [[Light pollution]]
** [[Over-illumination]]
* [[Local Cooling]]
*[[Low Carbon Communities]]
* [[Low-energy vehicle]]
* [[:Category:Low-energy building]]
* [[Minimum Efficiency Performance Standards]]
* [[MIT Design Advisor]]
* [[Oil price increases since 2003]]
* [[One Watt Initiative]]
* [[Passive solar building design]]
* [[Renewable heat]]
* [[Thermal efficiency]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]
* [[World energy resources and consumption]]
* In various countries:
** [[Energy Conservation Building Code]] for Indian Commercial Buildings
** [[Energie-Cités]]
** [[Energy efficiency in British housing]]
** [[Energy use in the United States]]
** [[Jatropha incentives in India]]
** [[Oil phase-out in Sweden]]
</div>
==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Scott Davis, Dana K. Mirick, Richard G. Stevens
| url = http://jncicancerspectrum.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/jnci;93/20/1557?ijkey=e1472aefe9398c2c26bf8515391f5940acc05495
| title = Night Shift Work, Light at Night, and Risk of Breast Cancer
| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute
| volume=93 | issue=20 | year=2001 | pages=1557–1562
| pmid = 11604479
| doi = 10.1093/jnci/93.20.1557
}}
* Bain, A., “The Hindenburg Disaster: A Compelling Theory of Probable Cause and Effect,” Procs. NatL Hydr. Assn. 8th Ann. Hydrogen Meeting, Alexandria, Va., [[March 11]]-13, pp 125-128 (1997}
* Gary Steffy, ''Architectural Lighting Design'', John Wiley and Sons (2001) ISBN 0-471-38638-3
* Lumina Technologies, ''Analysis of energy consumption in a San Francisco Bay Area research office complex'', for (confidential) owner, Santa Rosa, Ca. May 17, 1996
* GSA paves way for IT-based buildings [http://www.gcn.com/print/26_13/44402-1.html]
==External links==
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{{Wikibookspar||How to reduce home energy usage}}
;Resources for homes:
* [http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-631.html Conserving energy with plants]
* [http://www.getenergyactive.org/wisely/tips.htm Energy savings tips for your home]
* [http://www.ontariotenants.ca/apartment_living/electricity-savings.phtml Energy conservation tips for apartments]
* [http://www.spartansaving.com Energy conservation resource for home owners]
* [http://www.pge.com/res/rebates/energy_tools_resources/ Energy saving resources for the home]
* [http://www.greenerchoices.org/globalwarmingathome.cfm Global warming solutions at home]
* [http://www.energyideas.org/about/default.cfm?o=h,a,as&c=z,z,96 Hot Tub and pool efficiency tips]
;Resources for businesses:
* [http://www.boma.org/TrainingAndEducation/BEEP/ BOMA energy efficiency program]
* [http://www.energyideas.org/about/default.cfm?o=h,as&c=z,120 Product and technology reviews]
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_workplace/ US Department of Energy workplace resources]
* [http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=business.bus_index EnergyStar] - for commercial buildings and plants
* [http://buildings.lbl.gov/CEC/ California high performance buildings program]
* [http://www.energyideas.org/topics/default.cfm?o=h,t&c=z,z Objective database of energy information resources and technical tools]
;Government and international websites:
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/industry/ US Department of Energy] - resources for industry
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov U.S. Energy Information Administration]
* [http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov Buildings Energy Data Book] - commercial/residential building consumption patterns
* [http://www.unep.fr/energy UNEP- Energy Branch.]
* [http://www.ecbcs.org IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme.]
* [http://www.energyideas.org WSU Extension Energy Program]
* [http://afsic.nal.usda.gov/nal_display/index.php?tax_level=1&info_center=2&tax_subject=281 Farm Energy Options.] Alternative Farming Systems Information Center, [[National Agricultural Library]].
{{Global Warming}}
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[[Category:Energy policy]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
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[[it:Risparmio energetico]]
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