Energy development
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/* Energy resilience */
{{prose|date=June 2008}}
{{tone|date=June 2008}}
[[Image:HDI & Electricity per capita.png|thumb|350px|right|Higher electricity use per capita correlates with a higher score on the [[Human Development Index]] (1997). Developing nations score much lower on these variables than developed nations. The continued rapid economic growth and increase in living standards in developing nations with large populations, like [[China]] and [[India]], is dependent on a rapid and large expansion of [[energy]] production capacity.]]
'''Energy development''' is the ongoing effort to provide sufficient [[primary energy]] sources and secondary [[energy forms]] to power the world economy. It involves both installation of established technologies and research and development to create new energy-related technologies. Major considerations in energy planning include cost, impact on [[air pollution]], and whether or not the source is [[Renewable energy|renewable]].
==Sustainability==
The [[environmental movement]] emphasizes [[sustainability]] of energy use and development. [[Renewable energy]] is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially [[air pollution]]. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are seen as ideal in this regard.
The status of [[nuclear power]] is controversial. The supply of usable [[uranium]] might last a very long time, with an almost unlimited supply of sea water uranium available once ground based mining is exhausted, but nuclear waste must be stored in a shielded location for hundreds or thousands of years without investment in new reactor designs.
[[Fossil fuels]] such as [[petroleum]], [[coal]], and [[natural gas]] are not renewable. For example, the timing of worldwide [[peak oil]] production is being actively debated, but it has already happened in some countries. Fossil fuels also make up the bulk of the world's current [[primary energy]] sources. With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt alternative energy sources is also growing. Fossil fuels are also a major source of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, leading to concerns about [[global warming]] if consumption is not reduced.
[[Energy conservation]] is an alternative or complementary process to energy development. It reduces the demand for energy by using it more efficiently.
==Dependence on external energy sources and energy resilience ==
Technologically advanced societies have become increasingly dependent on external energy sources for [[transportation]], the production of many manufactured goods, and the delivery of energy services. This energy allows people, in general, to live under otherwise unfavorable climatic conditions through the use of [[HVAC|heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning]]. Level of use of external energy sources differs across societies, as do the [[climate]], convenience, [[traffic congestion]], [[pollution]], [[Gross Domestic Product|production]], and [[greenhouse gas]] emissions of each society.
Increased levels of human comfort generally induce increased dependence on external energy sources, although the application of [[energy efficiency]] and [[energy conservation|conservation]] approaches allows a certain degree of mitigation of the dependence. Wise energy use therefore embodies the idea of balancing human comfort with reasonable [[energy consumption]] levels by [[research]]ing and implementing effective and sustainable energy harvesting and utilization measures.
=== Energy resilience ===
{{Splitsection|Energy resilience}}
[[Andy Grove]] argues that energy independence is a [[wikt:flawed|flawed]] and [[wikt:infeasible|infeasible]] objective, particularly in a network of integrated global exchange. He suggests instead that the objective should be energy resilience: resilience goes hand in hand with adaptability, and it also is reflected in important market ideas like [[substitutability]]. In fact, resilience is one of the best features of market processes; the information transmission function of prices means that individual buyers and sellers can adapt to changes in supply and demand conditions in a decentralized way. His suggestion for how to increase the resilience of the U.S. energy economy is to shift use from petroleum to electricity, that can be produced using multiple sources of energy. <ref>http://www.knowledgeproblem.com/archives/002597.html</ref>.
{{Sectstub}}
==Primary energy sources==
[[Primary energy]] sources are substances or processes with concentrations of energy at a high enough potential to be feasibly encouraged to convert to lower energy forms under human control for human benefit. Except for [[nuclear fuel]]s, [[tidal energy]] and [[geothermal energy]], all terrestrial energy sources are from current solar insolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied directly and indirectly upon sunlight, respectively. And ultimately, [[solar power|solar energy]] itself is the result of the [[Sun]]'s nuclear fusion. [[Geothermal power]] from hot, hardened [[Rock (geology)|rock]] above the [[magma]] of the earth's core is the result of the accumulation of radioactive materials during the formation of Earth which was the [[Supernova#Source of heavy elements|byproduct]] of a previous [[supernova]] event.
===Fossil fuels===
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
{{main|Fossil fuel}}
Fossil fuels, in terms of energy, involve the burning of [[coal]] or [[hydrocarbon]] fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]]. Another fossil fuel, [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.
====Pros====
*The [[technology]] and [[infrastructure]] already exist for the use of fossil fuels (although oil and natural gas are approaching [[peak oil|peak production]], and will require a transition to other fuels and/or other measures.
*Commonly-used fossil fuels in liquid form such as light crude oil, gasoline, and LPG are easy to distribute.
*[[Petroleum]] [[energy density]] in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) is superior to some alternative energy sources (or [[energy storage]] devices, like a [[battery (electricity)]]). [[Energy density]] is important in land-and-air transportation fuel tanks.
====Cons====
*Petroleum-powered vehicles are very inefficient. Only about 15% of the energy from the fuel they consume is converted into useful motion.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/atv.shtml
| title= Advanced Technologies & Energy Efficiency
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work=
| publisher= [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. DoE]] / [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|U.S. EPA]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref> The rest of the fuel-source energy is inefficiently expended as waste heat. The heat and gaseous pollution emissions harm our environment.
*The inefficient atmospheric [[combustion]] (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to [[urban heat island]]s.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/
| title= Heat Island Group Home Page
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2000-08-30 |work= | publisher= [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref>
*The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of [[pollution]] into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. According to the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]], a typical coal plant produces in one year:<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/coalvswind/c02c.html
| title= Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution
| date= 08/18/05 |work= | publisher= [[Union of Concerned Scientists]]
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
**3,700,000 tons of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>), the primary cause of [[global warming]].
**10,000 tons of sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>), the leading cause of acid rain.
**500 tons of small airborne particles, which result in chronic bronchitis, aggravated asthma, and premature death, in addition to haze-obstructed visibility.
**10,200 tons of nitrogen oxides (NOx), (from high-temperature atmospheric combustion), leading to formation of ozone (smog) which inflames the lungs, burning lung tissue making people more susceptible to respiratory illness.
**720 tons of carbon monoxide (CO), resulting in headaches and additional stress on people with heart disease.
**220 tons of hydrocarbons, toxic volatile organic compounds (VOC), which form ozone.
**170 pounds of mercury, where just 1/70th of a teaspoon deposited on a 25 acre lake can make the fish unsafe to eat.
**225 pounds of arsenic, which will cause cancer in one out of 100 people who drink water containing 50 parts per billion.
**114 pounds of lead, 4 pounds of cadmium, other toxic heavy metals, and trace amounts of uranium.
*Dependence on fossil fuels from volatile regions or countries creates [[energy security]] risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, major funding of radical terrorists, monopolization, and socio-political instability.
*Fossil fuels are non-[[renewable energy|renewable]], un-[[sustainable]] resources, which will eventually [[Peak oil|decline in production]]<ref>http://www.pppl.gov/polImage.cfm?doc_Id=44&size_code=Doc</ref> and become exhausted, with dire consequences to societies that remain highly dependent on them. (Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but we are using them up at a rate approximately 100,000 times faster than they are formed.)
[[Image:Moss Landing Power Plant p1270026.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Moss Landing Power Plant]] burns [[natural gas]] to produce electricity in [[California]].]]
*Extracting fossil fuels is becoming more difficult as we consume the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction of fossil fuels is becoming more expensive and more dangerous as [[Mining|mine]]s get deeper and [[oil rig]]s must drill deeper, and go further out to sea.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.rigzone.com/analysis/rigs/insight.asp?i_id=213
| title= Big Rig Building Boom
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2006-04-13 |work= | publisher= Rigzone.com
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*Extraction of fossil fuels results in extensive environmental degradation, such as the [[strip mining]] and [[mountaintop removal]] of coal.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
[[Image:MiRO7.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gas flare]] from an [[oil refinery]].]]
Since these power plants are thermal engines, and are typically quite large, waste heat disposal becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Thus, at a time of [[peak demand]], a power plant may need to be shut down or operate at a reduced power level, as sometimes do nuclear power plants, for the same reasons.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
===Biomass, biofuels, and vegetable oil===
[[Image:Sugar cane leaves.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|[[Sugar cane]] residue can be used as a biofuel]]
:''Main articles: [[Alcohol fuel]], [[Biomass]], [[Vegetable oil economy]], [[vegetable oil as fuel]], [[biodiesel]]'', ''[[Ethanol fuel]]''
Biomass production involves using [[waste|garbage]] or other [[renewable energy|renewable]] resources such as [[corn]] or other [[vegetation]] to generate electricity. When garbage [[decomposition|decomposes]], the [[methane]] produced is captured in pipes and later burned to produce electricity. Vegetation and wood can be burned directly to generate energy, like fossil fuels, or processed to form [[alcohol]]s.
[[Vegetable oil]] is generated from sunlight and CO<sub>2</sub> by plants. It is safer to use and store than [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]] as it has a higher [[flash point]]. [[Straight vegetable oil]] works in diesel engines if it is heated first. Vegetable oil can also be [[transesterified]] to make [[biodiesel]], which burns like normal diesel.
====Pros====
{{Unreferencedsection|date=April 2008}}
*Biomass production can be used to burn organic waste products resulting from agriculture. This type of recycling encourages the philosophy that nothing on this Earth should be wasted. The result is less demand on the Earth's resources, and a higher carrying capacity for Earth because non-renewable fossil fuels are not consumed.
*Biomass is abundant on Earth and is generally renewable. In theory, we will never run out of organic waste products as fuel, because we are continuously producing them. In addition, biomass is found throughout the world, a fact that should alleviate energy pressures in third world nations.
*When methods of biomass production other than direct combustion of plant mass are used, such as [[Fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] and [[pyrolysis]], there is little effect on the environment. Alcohols and other fuels produced by these alternative methods are clean burning and are feasible replacements to fossil fuels.
*Since CO<sub>2</sub> is first taken out of the atmosphere to make the vegetable oil and then put back after it is burned in the engine, there is no net increase in [[CO2|CO<sub>2</sub>]].
*Vegetable oil has a higher [[flash point]] and therefore is safer than most fossil fuels.
*Transitioning to vegetable oil could be relatively easy as [[biodiesel]] works where [[diesel]] works, and [[straight vegetable oil]] takes relatively minor modifications.
*The World already produces more than 100 billion gallons a year for food industry, so we have experience making it.
*[[Algaculture]] has the potential to produce far more vegetable oil per acre than current plants.
*[[Infrastructure]] for [[biodiesel around the World]] is significant and growing.
====Cons====
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
*Direct combustion of any carbon-based fuel leads to [[air pollution]] similar to [[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion|that from fossil fuels]].
*Some researchers claim that when biomass crops are the product of [[intensive farming]], [[ethanol fuel]] production results in a net loss of energy after one accounts for the fuel costs of petroleum and natural-gas fertilizer production, farm equipment, and the distillation process.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://petroleum.berkeley.edu/papers/Biofuels/NRRethanol.2005.pdf
| title= "Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower"
|author= David Pimentel |coauthors= Tad W. Patzek
| date= March 2005 | format= [[PDF]] |work=
| publisher= ''Natural Resources Research'' Vol. 14, No. 1
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*There is a long list of reasons why even non-food based cellulosic ethanol cannot solve our energy crisis or global warming problems.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://venturebeat.com/2006/11/05/why-cellulosic-ethanol-will-not-save-us/
| title= Why cellulosic ethanol will not save us?
| author= Tad Patzek | date= 11.5.06 |work= | publisher= VentureBeat
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*Direct competition with land use for food production and water use.
*Current production methods would require enormous amounts of land to replace all [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]. With current technology, it is not feasible for biofuels to replace the demand for petroleum.
*Even with the most-optimistic current energy [[return on investment]] claims, in order to use 100% [[solar energy]] to grow corn and produce ethanol (fueling machinery with ethanol, distilling with heat from burning crop residues, using NO fossil fuels at all), the consumption of ethanol to replace only the current U.S. petroleum use would require three quarters of all the cultivated land on the face of the Earth.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/25/36760950.pdf
| title = Energy at the crossroads
| format= [[PDF]]
| accessdate = 2008-01-01
}}</ref>
===Hydroelectric energy===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=April 2008}}
{{main|Hydroelectricity}}
In hydro energy, the [[gravitation]]al descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single location with a [[dam]] or a [[flume]]. This creates a location where concentrated [[pressure]] and [[Volumetric flow rate|flow]] can be used to turn [[turbine]]s or [[water wheel]]s, which drive a mechanical [[watermill|mill]] or an [[electric generator]].
====Pros====
*Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full capacity, unlike other types of power stations. This is because water can be accumulated above the dam and released to coincide with [[peak demand]].
*Electricity can be generated constantly, so long as sufficient water is available.
*Hydroelectric power produces no primary [[waste]] or [[pollution]].
*Hydropower is a renewable resource.
*Hydroelectricity assists in securing a country's access to energy supplies.
*Much hydroelectric capacity is still undeveloped, such as in [[Africa]].
====Cons====
*The construction of a dam can have a serious environmental impact on the surrounding areas. The amount and the quality of water downstream can be affected, which affects plant life both [[aquatic plant|aquatic]], and land-based. Because a river [[valley]] is being flooded, the local habitat of many [[species]] are destroyed, while people living nearby may have to relocate their homes.
*Hydroelectricity can only be used in areas where there is a sufficient supply of water.
*Flooding submerges large forests (if they have not been harvested). The resulting [[anaerobic]] decomposition of the carboniferous materials releases methane, a [[greenhouse gas]].
*Dams can contain huge amounts of water. As with every energy storage system, failure of containment can lead to catastrophic results, e.g. flooding.
*Hydroelectric plants rarely can be erected near load centers, requiring long transmission lines.
*[[Global warming]] is causing reduced [[rainfall]] in some regions, reducing the available water in dammed reservoirs (such as [[Lake Powell]] in the [[Southwestern United States]]).
===Tidal Power Generation===
{{main|Tidal power}}
Tidal power can be extracted from [[Moon]]-gravity-powered [[tide]]s by locating a [[water turbine]] in a tidal current, or by building impoundment pond dams that admit-or-release water through a turbine. The turbine can turn an [[electrical generator]], or a [[gas compressor]], that can then store energy until needed. Coastal tides are a source of clean, free, renewable, and sustainable energy.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
===Nuclear energy===
{{main|Nuclear power}}
[[Image:Diablo canyon nuclear power plant.jpg|thumb|right|[[Diablo Canyon Power Plant]] Nuclear power station.]]
[[Image:Nuclear power stations.png|thumb|right|The status of nuclear power globally. Nations in dark green have reactors and are constructing new reactors, those in light green are constructing their first reactor, those in dark yellow are considering new reactors, those in light yellow are considering their first reactor, those in blue have reactors but are not constructing or decommissioning, those in light blue are considering decommissioning and those in red have decommissioned all their commercial reactors. Brown indicates that the country has declared itself free of nuclear power and weapons.]]
[[Image:Nuclear Power History.png|thumb|right|History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants (bottom).]]
[[Nuclear power plant|Nuclear power stations]] use [[nuclear fission]] to generate energy by the reaction of [[uranium]]-235 inside a [[nuclear reactor]]. The reactor uses uranium [[rod (shaft)|rod]]s, the atoms of which are split in the process of [[nuclear fission|fission]], releasing a large amount of energy. The process continues as a [[chain reaction]] with other [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. The heat released, heats water to create [[steam]], which spins a [[turbine]] generator, producing [[electricity]].
Depending on the type of fission fuel considered, estimates for existing supply at known usage rates varies from several decades for the currently popular Uranium-235 to thousands of years for uranium-238. At the present use rate, there are (as of 2007) about [[Peak uranium|70 years left]] of known [[uranium-235]] reserves economically recoverable at a uranium price of US$ 130/kg.<ref name="wna75">{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf75.html
| title= Supply of Uranium
| date= March 2007 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> The nuclear industry argue that the cost of fuel is a minor cost factor for fission power, more expensive, more difficult to extract sources of uranium could be used in the future, such as lower-grade ores, and if prices increased enough, from sources such as granite and seawater.<ref name="wna75"/> Increasing the price of uranium would have little effect on the overall cost of nuclear power; a doubling in the cost of natural uranium would increase the total cost of nuclear power by 5 percent. On the other hand, if the price of natural gas was doubled, the cost of gas-fired power would increase by about 60 percent.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf02.html
| title= The Economics of Nuclear Power
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= June 2007 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
Opponents on the other hand argue that the correlation between price and production is not linear, but as the ores' concentration becomes smaller, the difficulty (energy and resource consumption are increasing, while the yields are decreasing) of extraction rises very fast, and that the assertion that a higher price will yield more uranium is overly optimistic; for example a rough estimate predicts that the extraction of uranium from granite will consume at least 70 times more energy than what it will produce in a reactor. As many as eleven countries have depleted their uranium resources, and only Canada has mines left which produce better than 1% concentration ore.<ref>[http://www.energywatchgroup.org/fileadmin/global/pdf/EWG_Press_Uranium_29-11-2006.pdf Uranium Resources and Nuclear Energy]</ref> Seawater seems to be equally dubious as a source.<ref name="storm2">{{cite web
| url= http://www.stormsmith.nl/report20050803/Chap_2.pdf
| title= "Nuclear Energy: the Energy Balance"
| author= Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen | coauthors= Philip Smith
| date= 2005-07-30 | format= [[PDF]] |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> As a consequence an eventual doubling in the price of uranium will give a marginal increase in the volumes that are being produced.
Another alternative would be to use [[thorium]] as fission fuel. Thorium is three times more abundant in Earth's crust than uranium,<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.html
| title= Thorium
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= September 2007 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref> and much more of the thorium can be used (or, more precisely, bred into Uranium-233, reprocessed and then used as fuel). India has around 32 percent of the world’s reserves of thorium and intends on using it for itself because the country has run out of uranium.<ref name=science20050819>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/309/5738/1174
|title=Rethinking Nuclear Power: India's Homegrown Thorium Reactor
|publisher=Science (magazine)
|author=Pallava Bagla
|date=2005-08-19
|language=English
|accessdate=2008-04-12
}}</ref>
Current [[light water reactor]]s burn the nuclear fuel poorly, leading to energy waste. [[Nuclear reprocessing]]<ref name="wna04">{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf04.html
| title= Waste Management in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= April 2007 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref> or burning the fuel better using different reactor designs would reduce the amount of waste material generated and allow better use of the available resources. As opposed to current light water reactors which use [[uranium-235]] (0.7 percent of all natural uranium), [[fast breeder|fast breeder reactors]] convert the more abundant [[uranium-238]] (99.3 percent of all natural uranium) into [[plutonium]] for fuel. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of Uranium-238 for use in these power plants.<ref name="stanford-cohen"/> Fast breeder technology has been used in several reactors. However, the fast breeder reactors at [[Dounreay]] in Scotland, [[Monju]] in Japan and the [[Superphénix]] at Creys-Malville in France, in particular, have all had difficulties and were not economically competitive and most have been [[Nuclear decommissioning|decommissioned]]. The [[People's Republic of China]] intends to build breeders.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.nti.org/db/china/fbrprog.htm
| title= China's Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) Program
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 02/06/2004 |work= | publisher= Nuclear Threat Initiative
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref> India has run out of uranium and is building thermal breeders that can convert Th-232 into U-233 and burn it.<ref name=science20050819/>
Some [[Nuclear engineering|nuclear engineers]] think that [[pebble bed reactor]]s, in which each nuclear fuel pellet is coated with a [[ceramic]] coating, are inherently safe and are the best solution for nuclear power. They can also be configured to produce hydrogen for [[hydrogen vehicle]]s. China has plans to build pebble bed reactors configured to produce hydrogen.
The possibility of [[nuclear meltdown]]s and other reactor accidents, such as the [[Three Mile Island accident]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]], have caused much public fear. Research is being done to lessen the known problems of current reactor technology by developing automated and [[Passive nuclear safety|passively-safe]] reactors. Historically, however, coal and hydropower power generation have both been the cause of more deaths per energy unit produced than nuclear power generation.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://ee.ucd.ie/erc/events/nuclear/Crawley.pdf
| title= “Risks vs. Benefits in Energy Production”
|author= Gary Crawley
|date= |year= |month= | format= [[PDF]] |work= | publisher= Science Foundation Ireland
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} ]</ref><ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.theage.com.au/news/national/nuclear-power-cheaper-safer-than-coal-and-gas/2006/06/04/1149359609052.html
| title= "Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas"
|author= Brendan Nicholson
|date= 2006-06-05 |work= |publisher= ''[[The Age]]''
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> Various kinds of energy infrastructure might be attacked by [[Terrorism|terrorists]], including nuclear power plants, hydropower plants, and [[liquified natural gas]] [[Tank truck|tanker]]s. [[Nuclear proliferation]] is the spread from nation to nation of nuclear technology, including nuclear power plants but especially [[nuclear weapon]]s. New technology like [[SSTAR]] ("small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor") may lessen this risk.
The long-term [[radioactive waste]] storage problems of nuclear power have not been fully solved. Several countries have considered using underground repositories. Nuclear waste takes up little space compared to wastes from the chemical industry which remain toxic indefinitely.<ref name="wna04"/> Spent fuel rods are now stored in concrete casks close to the nuclear reactors.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/nuclear.html
| title= "Nuclear Now!"
| author= Peter Schwartz | coauthors= Spencer Reiss
| date= February 2005 | publisher= [[Wired (magazine)|''Wired'']]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> The amounts of waste could be reduced in several ways. Both [[nuclear reprocessing]] and [[fast breeder reactor]]s could reduce the amounts of waste. [[Subcritical reactor]]s or fusion reactors could greatly reduce the time the waste has to be stored.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf35.html
| title= Accelerator-driven Nuclear Energy
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= August 2003 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> Subcritical reactors may also be able to do the same to already existing waste. The only way of dealing with waste today is by geological storage.
The [[Economics of new nuclear power plants|economics]] of nuclear power is not simple to evaluate, because of high capital costs for building and very low fuel costs. Comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants. See [[Economics of new nuclear power plants]].
Depending on the source different energy return on energy investment ([[EROI]]) are claimed. Advocates (using life cycle analysis) argue that it takes 4–5 months of energy production from the nuclear plant to fully pay back the initial energy investment.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf11.html
| title= Energy Analysis of Power Systems
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= March 2006 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> Opponents claim that it depends on the grades of the ores the fuel came from, so a full payback can vary from 10 to 18 years, and that the advocates' claim was based on the assumption of high grade ores (the yields are getting worst, as the ores are leaner, for less than 0.02% ores, the yield is less then 50%).<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/537/gl/clean.html
| title= Coming Clean; How Clean is Nuclear Energy?
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= October 2000 |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} "World Information Service on Energy" 10-18 years for payback on nuclear energy, {{cite web
| url= http://www.stormsmith.nl/report20050803/Chap_2.pdf
| title= "Nuclear Energy: the Energy Balance"
|author= Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen | coauthors= Philip Smith
| date= 2005-07-30 | format= [[PDF]] |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
Advocates also claim that it is possible to relatively rapidly increase the number of plants. Typical new reactor designs have a construction time of three to four years.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.uic.com.au/nip16.htm
| title= Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= January 2008 |work= | publisher= Australian Uranium Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> In 1983, 43 plants were being built, before an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction. Developing countries like India and China are rapidly increasing their nuclear energy use.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.09/china.html
| title= "Let a Thousand Reactors Bloom"
| author= Spencer Reiss | date= September 2004 |work= | publisher= ''Wired''
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web
| url= http://db.world-nuclear.org/info/inf17.html
| title= Plans For New Reactors Worldwide
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= October 2007 |work= | publisher= World Nuclear Association
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }}</ref> However, a [[Council on Foreign Relations]] report on nuclear energy argues that a rapid expansion of nuclear power may create shortages in building materials such as reactor-quality concrete and steel, skilled workers and engineers, and safety controls by skilled inspectors. This would drive up current prices.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.cfr.org/content/publications/attachments/NuclearEnergyCSR28.pdf
| title= Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks
| author= Charles D. Ferguson | date= April 2007 | format= [[PDF]]
|work= | publisher= [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
====Pros====
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
*The energy content of a kilogram of uranium or [[thorium]], if [[spent nuclear fuel]] is [[nuclear reprocessing|reprocessed]] and fully utilized, is equivalent to about 3.5 million kilograms of coal.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*The cost of making nuclear power, with current legislation, is about the same as making coal power, which is considered very inexpensive (see [[Economics of new nuclear power plants]]). If a [[carbon tax]] is applied, nuclear does not have to pay anything because nuclear does not emit toxic gases such as CO<sub>2</sub>, NO, CO, SO<sub>2</sub>, [[arsenic]], etc. that are emitted by coal power plants.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*[[Nuclear power plant]]s are guarded with the nuclear reactor inside a reinforced [[containment building]], and thus are relatively impervious to terrorist attack or adverse weather conditions (see [[Nuclear safety in the U.S.]]).{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Because of the fear of a nuclear disaster, [[nuclear safety]] has become a major issue.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Nuclear power does not produce any primary [[air pollution]] or release [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulfur dioxide]] into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Therefore, it contributes only a small amount to [[global warming]] or [[acid rain]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Coal mining is the second most dangerous occupation in the United States.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10725454/
| title= "The most dangerous jobs in America"
|author= Carrie Coolidge
| date= 2006-01-05 |work= | publisher= [[Forbes (magazine)|''Forbes'']]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> Nuclear energy is much safer per capita than coal derived energy.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*For the same amount of electricity, the life cycle emissions of nuclear is about 4% of coal power. Depending on the report, hydro, wind, and geothermal are sometimes ranked lower, while wind and hydro are sometimes ranked higher (by life cycle emissions).<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.nei.org/keyissues/protectingtheenvironment/lifecycleemissionsanalysis/
| title= Life-Cycle Emissions Analysis
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= Nuclear Energy Institute
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref><ref>{{cite web
| url= http://dailyreferendum.blogspot.com/2007/08/go-nuclear-go-green-life-cycle.html
| title= Go Nuclear - Go Green - Life Cycle Emissions Comparable to Renewables.
| author= Steve Green | date= 2007-08-26 |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*According to a Stanford study, [[fast breeder|fast breeder reactors]] have the potential to power humans on earth for billions of years, making it sustainable.<ref name="stanford-cohen"> {{Cite web |url= http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/cohen.html |title= Facts From Cohen and Others |accessdate= 2008-01-18 |publisher= Stanford |year=2006 |author=John McCarthy |authorlink= John McCarthy (computer scientist) |work= Progress and its Sustainability}}</ref>
====Cons====
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
*The improper operation of a badly designed [[nuclear reactor]] with no [[Containment building|containment vessel]] near human settlements can be catastrophic in the event of an uncontrolled power increase in the reactor, as shown by the [[Chernobyl disaster]] in the [[Ukraine]] (former USSR), where large areas of [[Europe]] were affected by moderate [[radioactive contamination]] and the parts of the [[Ukraine]] and one fifth of [[Belarus]] continue today to be affected by radioactive fallout as of 2008.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geographical location and extent of radioactive contamination| publisher=Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation|url=http://www.chernobyl.info/index.php?navID=2}}</ref>
*The human, environmental, and economic costs from a successful terrorist attack on a nuclear power reactor that results in the release of substantial quantities of radioactive material to the environment could be great.<ref> [http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdoc.cfm?index=6042&type=0&sequence=3 "Congressional Budget Office Vulnerabilities from Attacks on Power Reactors and Spent Material"].</ref>
*[[Spent nuclear fuel|Waste]] produced from nuclear fission of uranium is both [[poison]]ous and highly [[radioactive]], requiring [[Maintenance, repair and operations|maintenance]] and monitoring at the [[Spent fuel pool|storage]] sites. However, if nuclear fuel is reprocessed, the separated radioactive fission product waste will decay to such a level of radioactivity in 300-500 years.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*There can be connections between nuclear power and [[nuclear weapon]] proliferation, since many reactor designs require large-scale [[uranium enrichment]] facilities.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*The limited liability for the owner of a nuclear power plant in case of a nuclear accident differs per nation while nuclear installations are sometimes built close to national borders.<ref> Schwartz, J. 2004. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15231352&dopt=Abstract "Emergency preparedness and response: compensating victims of a nuclear accident."] Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 111, Issues 1–3, July, 89–96.</ref>
*Since nuclear power plants are typically quite large power plants, and are, fundamentally, thermal engines, waste heat disposal becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Thus, at a time of peak demand, a power reactor may need to be shut down or operate at a reduced power level, as do large coal-fired plants, for the same reasons.<ref> [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/business/energy/5061439.html "TVA reactor shut down; cooling water from river too hot"].</ref>
===Fusion power===
[[Fusion power]] could solve many of the problems of [[nuclear fission|fission power]] (the technology mentioned above) but, despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.iter.org/index.htm
| title= What is ITER?
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= ITER International Fusion Energy Organization
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> Many technical problems remain unsolved. Proposed fusion reactors commonly use [[deuterium]], an [[isotope]] of [[hydrogen]], as fuel and in most current designs also [[lithium]]. Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water would have fuel for 150 billion years.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.fusie-energie.nl/artikelen/ongena.pdf
| title= Energy for Future Centuries: Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?
| author= J. Ongena | coauthors= G. Van Oost
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
===Wind power===
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
[[Image:Wind 2006andprediction en.png|thumb|200px|Wind power: worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: [http://www.wwindea.org/ WWEA]]]
{{main|Wind power}}
This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of [[wind turbine]]s. These turbines cause the rotation of [[magnet]]s, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on [[wind farm]]s.
====Pros====
*Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can contaminate the environment, because there are no [[chemical reaction|chemical processes]] involved in wind power generation. Hence, there are no waste by-products, such as [[carbon dioxide]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Power from the wind does not contribute to [[global warming]] because it does not generate [[greenhouse gas]]es.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Wind generation is a [[renewable energy|renewable]] source of energy, which means that we will never run out of it.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or temporarily, in remote areas. It may be difficult to transport electricity through wires from a power plant to a far-away location and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Farming and grazing can still take place on land occupied by wind turbines.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Those utilizing wind power in a grid-tie configuration will have backup power in the event of a [[power outage]].{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Due to the ability of wind turbines to coexist within agricultural fields, siting costs are frequently low.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
====Cons====
*Wind is unpredictable; therefore, wind power is not predictably available. When the wind speed decreases less electricity is generated. This makes wind power unsuitable for base load generation.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*[[Wind farms]] may be challenged in communities that consider them an eyesore or view obstructor.<ref> [http://web.archive.org/web/20061007041311/http://www.saveoursound.org/node/293 Wind Farm Foes, Backers Stage Watery Debate], [[Cape Cod Times]] ([[Waybacked]]).</ref>
*Wind farms, depending on the location and type of turbine, may negatively affect bird migration patterns and may pose a danger to the birds themselves. Newer, larger wind turbines have slower moving blades which are visible to birds.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} <!-- cats kill more birds than turbines -->
===Solar power===
[[Image:CIS Tower.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[CIS Tower]], [[Manchester]], [[England]], was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5.5 million. It started feeding electricity to the [[National Grid (UK)|national grid]] in November 2005.]]
:''Main articles: [[Solar energy]], [[Photovoltaics]]''
Solar power involves using [[solar cell]]s to convert [[sunlight]] into [[electricity]], using sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to convert sunlight to heat water or air, using sunlight hitting a [[parabolic mirror]] to heat water (producing [[steam]]), or using sunlight entering windows for [[passive solar]] heating of a building. It would be advantageous to place solar panels in the regions of highest solar radiation. In the Phoenix, Arizona area, for example, the average annual solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m²/day,<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.nwic-research.org/npsec/html/human/renew/solar.htm
| title= Solar
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= [[Northwest Indian College]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref> or 2080.5 kWh/m²/year. Electricity demand in the continental U.S. is 3.7*10<sup>12</sup> kW·h per year. Thus, at 100% efficiency, an area of 1.8x10^9 sq. m (around 700 square miles) would need to be covered with solar panels to replace all current electricity production in the US with solar power, and at 20% efficiency, an area of approximately 3500 square miles (3% of Arizona's land area). The average solar radiation in the United States is 4.8 kwh/m²/day,<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/documents/docs/OCS_EIS_WhitePaper_Solar.pdf
| title= Technology White Paper on Solar Energy Potential on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= May 2006 | format= [[PDF]] |work= | publisher= [[U.S. Department of the Interior]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref> but reaches 8–9 kWh/m²/day in parts of Southwest.
The cost, assuming $500/meter², would be about $5-10 trillion dollars.{{Or|date=January 2008}}
China is aggressively more-than-doubling worldwide silicon wafer capacity for photovoltaics to 2,000 metric tons by July 2008, and over 6,000 metric tons by the end of 2010.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.suntech-power.com/News/tabid/99/Default.aspx?id=303&Module=597
| title= Suntech Announces Analyst and Investor Day Highlights
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2007-12-11 |work= | publisher= Suntech Power
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref> Significant international investment capital is flowing into China to support this opportunity. China is building large subsidized off-the-grid solar-powered cities in [[Huangbaiyu]] and [[Dongtan]] Eco City. Much of the design was done by Americans such as [[William McDonough]].{{Fact|date=January 2008}}
====Pros====
*Solar power imparts no fuel costs.
*Solar power is a [[renewable energy|renewable]] resource. As long as the [[Sun]] exists, its energy will reach [[Earth]].
*Solar power generation releases no water or [[air pollution]], because there is no [[combustion]] of fuels.
*In sunny countries, solar power can be used in remote locations, like a wind turbine. This way, isolated places can receive electricity, when there is no way to connect to the [[electric power transmission|power line]]s from a plant.
*Solar energy can be used very efficiently for heating (solar ovens, solar water and home heaters) and [[daylighting]].
*Coincidentally, solar energy is abundant in regions that have the largest number of people living off grid — in developing regions of [[Africa]], [[Solar power in India|Indian subcontinent]] and [[Latin America]]. Hence cheap solar, when available, opens the opportunity to enhance global electricity access considerably, and possibly in a relatively short time period.<ref> [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=10944 Solar Revolution, by Travis Bradford]</ref>
*Photovoltaic systems are subsidized, up to $5 USD per watt in some American states.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.dsireusa.org/
| title= DSIRE homepage
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref>
*[[Passive solar building design]] and [[zero energy building]]s are demonstrating significant energy bill reduction, and some are cost-effectively [[off the grid]].
*Photovoltaic equipment cost has been steadily falling, the production capacity is rapidly rising, and the U.S. Administration expects its Solar America Initiative to help make amortized PV electricity price competitive for the new generation of [[zero energy building]]s.<ref> {{cite web
| url= http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/01/20060131-6.html
| title= State of the Union: The Advanced Energy Initiative
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2006-01-31 |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref>
*Distributed point-of-use photovoltaic systems eliminate expensive long-distance [[electric power transmission]] losses.
*Photovoltaics are much more efficient in their conversion of solar energy to usable energy than [[biofuel]] from [[plant]] materials.<ref>[http://www.ecoworld.com/blog/2006/06/15/solar-power-biofuel-vs-photovoltaics/ "Biofuel vs. Photovoltaics" EcoWorld]</ref>
====Cons====
*Solar electricity is currently more expensive than grid electricity.
*Solar heat and electricity are not available at night and may be unavailable due to weather conditions; therefore, a [[Intermittent power source#Intermittency: solar energy|storage or complementary power system]] is required for [[off-the-grid]] applications.
*Limited [[energy density]]: Average daily insolation in the contiguous U.S. is 3–7 kW·h/m².<ref> [http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar/cfm/faqs/third_level.cfm/name=Photovoltaics/cat=The%20Basics#Q43 DOE's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Solar FAQ]</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.engineeringtalk.com/news/spo/spo103.html
| title= Solar panel achieves high efficiency
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2007-04-19 |work= | publisher= ''Engineeringtalk'' newsletter
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref> (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Us_pv_annual_may2004.jpg picture])
*Solar cells produce [[Direct Current|DC]] which must be converted to [[Alternating Current|AC]] (using a [[grid tie inverter]]) when used in currently existing distribution grids. This incurs an energy loss of 4–12%.<ref> [http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/codes_algs/PVWATTS/system.html Renewable Resource Data Center — PV Correction Factors]</ref>
*A photovoltaic power station is expensive to build, and the energy payback time — the time necessary for producing the same amount of energy as needed for building the power device — for [[photovoltaic cells]] is about 1–5 years, depending primarily on location.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://homepower.com/
| title= ''Home Power'' magazine
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref>
*Solar panels collect dust and require cleaning. Dust on the panels significantly reduces the transfer of energy from solar radiation to electric current.
===Geothermal energy===
{{main|Geothermal power}}
Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath the [[Earth]]. Two wells are drilled. One well injects water into the ground to provide water. The hot [[rock (geology)|rocks]] heat the water to produce [[steam]]. The steam that shoots back up the other hole(s) is purified and is used to drive [[turbine]]s, which power [[electric generator]]s. When the water temperature is below the boiling point of water a binary system is used. A low boiling point liquid is used to drive a turbine and generator in a closed system similar to a refrigeration unit running in reverse.
====Pros====
*Geothermal energy is [[base load]] power.<ref name=EERE200706>{{cite web
|url=http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/structure_outcome.pdf
|title=The Future of Geothermal Energy
|publisher=US Department of Energy - Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
|author=Jeff Tester and Ron DiPippo
|date=2007-06-07
|language=English
|accessdate=2008-04-16
}}</ref>
*Economically feasible in high grade areas now.<ref name=EERE200706/>
*Low deployment costs.<ref name=EERE200706/>
*Geothermal power plants have a high [[capacity factor]]; they run continuously day and night with an uptime typically exceeding 95%.
*Once a geothermal power station is implemented, the energy produced from the station is practically free. A small amount of energy is required in order to run a [[pump]], although this pump can be powered by excess energy generated at the plant.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Geothermal power stations are relatively small, and have a lesser impact on the environment than tidal or hydroelectric plants. Because geothermal technology does not rely on large bodies of water, but rather, small, but powerful jets of water, like [[geyser]]s, large generating stations can be avoided without losing functionality.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Geothermal is now feasible in areas where the earth's crust is thicker. Using enhanced geothermal technology, it's possible to drill deeper and inject water to generate geothermal power.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://geothermal.inel.gov/publications/future_of_geothermal_energy.pdf
| title= "The Future of Geothermal Energy"
| author= Jefferson W. Tester, ''et al.'' |coauthors=
|date= |year= 2006 |month= |format= [[PDF]] |work=
| publisher= [[Idaho National Laboratory]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref>
*Geothermal energy does not produce air or water [[pollution]] if performed correctly.
====Cons====
*Geothermal power extracts small amounts of minerals such as sulfur <!-- and others -->that are removed prior to feeding the turbine and re-injecting the water back into the injection well.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
*Geothermal power requires locations that have suitable subterranean temperatures within 5km of surface. {{Fact|date=June 2008}}
*Some geothermal stations have created geological instability, even causing earthquakes strong enough to damage buildings. <ref>http://www.smh.com.au/news/Business/Hot-rock-firm-looks-at-earthquake-risk/2007/01/02/1167500096355.html</ref>
== Increased efficiency in energy use ==
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
Efficiency is increasing by about 2% a year, and absorbs most of the requirements for energy development. New technology makes better use of already available energy through improved efficiency, such as more efficient [[fluorescent lamp]]s, [[engine]]s, and [[Thermal insulation|insulation]]. Using [[heat exchanger]]s, it is possible to recover some of the energy in waste warm water and air, for example to preheat incoming fresh water. Hydrocarbon fuel production from [[pyrolysis]] could also be in this category, allowing recovery of some of the energy in hydrocarbon waste. [[Meat]] production is energy inefficient compared to the production of protein sources like [[soybean]] or [[Quorn]]. Already existing [[power plants]] often can and usually are made more efficient with minor modifications due to new technology. New power plants may become more efficient with technology like [[cogeneration]]. New designs for buildings may incorporate techniques like [[passive solar]]. [[Light-emitting diode]]s are gradually replacing the remaining uses of [[light bulb]]s. Note that none of these methods allows [[perpetual motion]], as some energy is always lost to heat.
[[Mass transportation]] increases energy efficiency compared to widespread conventional automobile use while [[air travel]] is regarded as inefficient. Conventional combustion engine automobiles have continually improved their efficiency and may continue to do so in the future, for example by reducing weight with new materials. [[Hybrid Vehicle|Hybrid vehicles]] can save energy by allowing the engine to run more efficiently, regaining energy from braking, turning off the motor when idling in traffic, etc. More efficient [[ceramic]] or [[diesel]] engines can improve mileage. [[Electric vehicles]] such as [[Magnetic levitation train|Maglev]], [[trolleybus]]es, and [[PHEV]]s are more efficient during use (but maybe not if doing a life cycle analysis) than similar current combustion based vehicles, reducing their energy consumption during use by 1/2 to 1/4. [[Microcar]]s or motorcycles may replace automobiles carrying only one or two people. Transportation efficiency may also be improved by in other ways, see [[automated highway system]].
[[Electricity distribution]] may change in the future. New small scale energy sources may be placed closer to the consumers so that less energy is lost during electricity distribution. New technology like [[superconductivity]] or improved [[power factor correction]] may also decrease the energy lost. [[Distributed generation]] permits electricity "consumers", who are generating
==Energy transportation==
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
{{seealso|Pipeline transport}}
While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new [[technologies|technology]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] technology continually evolves. The use of [[fuel cell]]s in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. This section presents some of the more common delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in some way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.
[[Image:Pipeline-small image, seen from below.jpeg|thumb|left|130 px|An elevated section of the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System|Alaska Pipeline]].]]
* '''Fuels'''
:[[Shipping]] is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to highly advanced. Currently, [[coal]], [[petroleum]] and their derivatives are delivered by shipping via boat, [[Rail transport|rail]], or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered via [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] and coal via a [[Slurry pipeline]]. Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as [[gasoline]] and [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]] may also be delivered via [[aircraft]]. Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. [[Ethanol]]'s corrosive properties prevent it from being transported via pipeline. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v40_1_07/article08.shtml
| title = Oak Ridge National Laboratory — Biomass, Solving the science is only part of the challenge
| accessdate = 2008-01-06
}}</ref>
*'''Electric grids'''
:Electricity grids are the [[electrical network|networks]] used to [[Electric power transmission|transmit]] and [[Electricity distribution|distribute]] [[electric power|power]] from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a [[nuclear reactor]], coal burning power plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations, transformers, [[tower]]s, [[cable]]s, and [[piping]] are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity.
[[Image:Electricalgrid.jpg|thumb|right|130 px|Electric Grid: Pilons and cables distribute power]]
:Grids may suffer from transient [[Power blackout|blackout]]s and [[power outage|brownouts]], often due to weather damage. During certain extreme [[space weather]] events [[solar wind]] can interfere with transmissions.
:Grids also have a predefined [[carrying capacity]] or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.
:Industrialised countries such as [[Canada]], the [[United States|US]], and [[Australia]] are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although [[infrastructure]] maintenance is becoming a problem.
:[http://currentenergy.lbl.gov/ CurrentEnergy] provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for [[California]], [[Texas]], and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of [[Queensland]], Australia.
[[Image:Energy-consumption-World2.png|thumb|right|300px|Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999]]
[[Image:Energy-production-World2.png|thumb|right|300px|Energy production from 1989 to 1999]]
[[Image:Energy per capita.png|thumb|right|300px|Energy consumption ''per capita'' (2001). Red hues indicate increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.]]
==Energy storage==
:''Main articles: [[Energy storage]], [[grid energy storage]]''
Methods of energy storage have been developed, which transform electrical energy into forms of potential energy. A method of energy storage may be chosen based on stability, ease of transport, ease of energy release, or ease of converting free energy from the natural form to the stable form.
===Compressed air vehicles===
:''Main articles'': [[Compressed air vehicle]], [[Air car]]
The Indian company, Tata, is planning to release a compressed air powered car in 2008.
===Battery-powered vehicles===
:''Main articles'': [[battery (electricity)|battery]], [[battery electric vehicle]]''
Batteries are used to store energy in a chemical form. As an alternative energy, batteries can be used to store energy in [[battery electric vehicle]]s. Battery electric vehicles can be charged from the grid when the vehicle is not in use. Because the energy is derived from electricity, battery electric vehicles make it possible to use other forms of alternative energy such as [[wind]], [[Solar energy|solar]], [[Geothermal power|geothermal]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]], or [[hydroelectric]].
====Pros====
*Produces zero emissions to help counteract the effects of [[global warming]], as long as the electricity comes from a source which produces no greenhouse gases.
*Batteries are a mature technology, no new expensive research and development is needed to implement technology.
*Current lead acid battery technology offers 50+ miles range on one charge.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.kingoftheroad.net/charge_across_america/charge_html/nimh_test2.html| title= 1999 "Generation II" General Motors EV1: Kris Trexler's test drive impressions
| author= Kris Trexler
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= King of the Road
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*The [[Tesla Roadster]] has a {{convert|200|mi|km|sing=on}} range on one charge.
*Batteries make it possible for stationary alternative energy generation such as [[Solar energy|solar]], [[wind]], [[hydroelectric]], or [[nuclear power|nuclear]]
*Electric motors are 90% efficient compared to about 20% efficiency of an internal combustion engine.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/102spring2002_Web_projects/Z.Yates/Zach's%20Web%20Project%20Folder/EICE%20-%20Main.htm
| title= The Efficiency of The Internal Combustion Engine
| author= Zach Yates |date= | year= 2002 |work= |publisher=
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref>
*Battery electric vehicles have fewer moving parts than internal combustion engines, thus improving the reliability of the vehicle.
*Battery electric vehicles are quiet compared to internal combustion engines.
*Multiple electric vehicles sold out including the [[General Motors EV1]] and the [[Tesla Roadster]] proving the demand for battery electric vehicles.
*Operation of a battery electric vehicle is approximately 2 to 4 cents per mile. About a sixth the price of operating a gasoline vehicle.<ref>Idaho National Laboratory (2005) "Comparing Energy Costs per Mile for Electric and Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles" ''Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity'' [http://avt.inel.gov/pdf/fsev/costs.pdf report at avt.inel.gov] (PDF), accessed 11 July 2006.</ref>
*The use of battery electric vehicles may reduce the dependency on fossil fuels, depending on the source of the electricity.
====Cons====
*Current battery technology is expensive.
*Battery electric vehicles have a relative short range compared to internal combustion engine vehicles.
*Batteries are highly toxic. Spent vehicle batteries present an environmental hazard.
*Grid infrastructure and output would need to be improved significantly to accommodate a mass-adoption of grid-charged electric vehicles.
===Hydrogen economy===
{{main|Hydrogen economy}}
Hydrogen can be manufactured at roughly 77 percent thermal efficiency by the method of steam reforming of natural gas.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://cta.ornl.gov/data/index.shtml
| title= Transportation Energy Data Book (link)
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work=
| publisher= [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. Dept. of Energy]]
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref> When manufactured by this method it is a derivative fuel like gasoline; when produced by electrolysis of water, it is a form of chemical energy storage as are storage [[battery (electricity)|batteries]], though hydrogen is the more versatile storage mode since there are two options for its conversion to useful work: (1) a [[fuel cell]] can convert the chemicals [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] into water, and in the process, produce electricity, or (2) hydrogen can be burned (less efficiently than in a fuel cell) in an internal combustion engine.
====Pros====
*Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and entirely non-polluting, yielding pure water vapor (with minimal [[NOx]]) as exhaust when combusted in air. This eliminates the direct production of exhaust gases that lead to [[smog]], and carbon dioxide emissions that enhance the effect of [[global warming]].
*Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element and has the best energy-to-weight ratio of any fuel (not counting tank mass).
*Hydrogen can be produced anywhere; it can be produced [[Home|domestically]] from the decomposition of water. Hydrogen can be produced from domestic sources and the price can be established within the country.
====Cons====
*Other than some volcanic emanations, hydrogen does not exist in its pure form in the environment, because it reacts so strongly with oxygen and other elements.
*It is impossible to obtain hydrogen gas without expending energy in the process. There are three ways to manufacture hydrogen;
**By breaking down hydrocarbons — mainly methane. If oil or gases are used to provide this energy, fossil fuels are consumed, forming pollution and nullifying the value of using a [[fuel cell]]. It would be more efficient to use fossil fuel directly.
**By electrolysis from water — The process of splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen using [[electrolysis]] consumes large amounts of energy. It has been calculated that it takes 1.4 joules of electricity to produce 1 joule of hydrogen (Pimentel, 2002).
**By reacting water with a metal such as sodium, potassium, or boron. Chemical by-products would be sodium oxide, potassium oxide, and boron oxide. Processes exist which could recycle these elements back into their metal form for re-use with additional energy input, further eroding the [[EROEI|energy return on energy invested]].
*There is currently modest [[infrastructure|fixed infastructure]] for [[distribution (business)|distribution]] of hydrogen that is centrally produced,<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.praxair.com/praxair.nsf/d63afe71c771b0d785256519006c5ea1/2a5df393598d7f3b85256baf000827be?OpenDocument&Highlight=2,hydrogen
| title= Praxair Expands Hydrogen Pipeline Capacity
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2002-05-02 |work= | publisher= Praxair, Inc.
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-18 }} </ref> amounting to several hundred kilometers of pipeline. An alternative would be transmission of electricity over the existing [[electrical network]] to small-scale electrolyzers to support the widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel.
*Hydrogen is difficult to handle, store, and transport. It requires heavy, cumbersome tanks when stored as a gas, and complex insulating bottles if stored as a [[cryogenic]] liquid. If it is needed at a moderate [[temperature]] and [[pressure]], a [[metal hydride]] absorber may be needed. The transportation of hydrogen is also a problem because hydrogen leaks effortlessly from containers.
*Some current [[fuel cell]] designs, such as proton exchange membrane fuel cells, use [[platinum]] as a catalyst. Widescale deployment of such fuel cells could place a strain on available platinum resources.<ref> [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,182170,00.html Study: World May Run Out of Copper]</ref> Reducing the platinum loading, per fuel cell stack, is the focus of R&D.
*[[Electrical power industry|Electricity transmission]] and [[battery electric vehicles]] are far more efficient for storage, transmission and use of energy for transportation, neglecting the energy conversion at the electric power plant. As with distributed production of hydrogen via electrolysis, [[battery electric vehicles]] could utilize the existing electricity grid until widespread use dictated an expansion of the grid.
===Energy storage types===
*'''Chemical'''
:Some natural forms of energy are found in stable chemical compounds such as [[fossil fuel]]s. Most systems of chemical energy storage result from [[Biology|biological]] activity, which store energy in chemical bonds. Man-made forms of chemical energy storage include [[hydrogen]] fuel, [[Energy storage#Synthetic hydrocarbon fuel|synthetic hydrocarbon fuel]], [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] and [[explosive]]s such as [[cordite]] and [[dynamite]].
*'''Gravitational'''
:[[Dam]]s can be used to store energy, by using excess energy to pump water into the reservoir. When electrical energy is required, the process is reversed. The water then turns a [[turbine]], generating electricity. [[Hydroelectric]] power is currently an important part of the world's energy supply, generating one-fifth of the world's electricity.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/overview.asp
| title= Survey of Energy Resources 2004 (link)
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
|date= |year= |month= |format= |work= | publisher= World Energy Council
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }}</ref>
*'''Electrical capacitance'''
:Electrical energy may be stored in [[capacitor]]s. Capacitors are often used to produce high intensity releases of energy (such as a camera's flash).
*'''Mechanical'''
:*Pressure:
::Energy may also be stored [[pressure|pressurized]] gases or alternatively in a [[vacuum]]. Compressed air, for example, may be used to operate vehicles and power tools. Large scale [[compressed air energy storage]] facilities are used to smooth out demands on electricity generation by providing energy during peak hours and storing energy during off-peak hours. Such systems save on expensive generating capacity since it only needs to meet average consumption rather than peak consumption.<ref>{{cite web
| url= http://www.generalcompression.com/gc_summary.pdf
| title= Dispatchable Wind
|author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors=
| date= 2007-11-26 | format= [[PDF]] |work= | publisher= General Compression
|pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=
| accessdate= 2008-01-19 }} </ref>
:*Flywheels and springs
::Energy can also be stored in mechanical systems such as [[Spring (device)|springs]] or flywheels. [[Flywheel energy storage]] is currently being used for [[Uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power supplies]].
==Future energy development==
{{Refimprovesect|date=April 2008}}
[[Image:World energy consumption, 1970-2025, EIA.png|thumb|World energy consumption.]]
[[Image:World energy consumption by region 1970-2025.png|thumb|200px|right|An increasing share of world energy consumption is predicted to be used by developing nations. Source: EIA.]]
Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures. Some predictions parallel the [[Malthusian catastrophe]] hypothesis. Numerous are complex [[scientific modeling|models]] based [[scenario]]s as pioneered by ''[[Limits to Growth]]''. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse [[strategy|strategies]], and hopefully find a road to rapid and [[sustainable development]] of humanity. Short term [[energy crisis|energy crises]] are also a concern of energy development. Some extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.
Existing technologies for new energy sources, such as [[renewable energy]] technologies, particularly [[wind power]] and [[solar power]], are promising. [[Nuclear fission]] is also promoted, and each need sustained [[research]] and [[New product development|development]], including consideration of possible harmful [[Unintended consequence|side effects]]. [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]] spoke of using the salinization of water at river estuaries as an energy source, which would not have any consequences for a million years, and then stopped to point out that since we are going to be on the planet for a billion years we had to be looking that far into the future. [[Nuclear fusion]] and [[artificial photosynthesis]] are other energy technologies being researched and developed.
Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel ''resources'' (see above) that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If the investment is greater than the energy produced, then the fossil resource is no longer an energy source. This means that a large part of the fossil fuel resources and especially the non-conventional ones cannot be used for energy production today. Such resources may still be exploited economically in order to produce raw materials for [[plastic]]s, [[fertilizer]]s or even transportation fuel but now more energy is consumed than produced. (They then become similar to ordinary ''mining'' reserves, economically recoverable but not net positive energy sources.) New technology may ameliorate this problem if it can lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.
It should be noted that between 1950 and 1984, as the [[Green Revolution]] transformed [[agriculture]] around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by [[fossil fuels]] in the form of [[fertilizers]] (natural gas), [[pesticides]] (oil), and [[hydrocarbon]] fueled [[irrigation]].<ref> [http://www.energybulletin.net/281.html Eating Fossil Fuels | EnergyBulletin.net].</ref> The peaking of world hydrocarbon production ([[Peak oil]]) may test [[Malthus]] critics.<ref> [http://www.soilassociation.org/peakoil Peak Oil: the threat to our food security].</ref>{{POV statement}}
=== History of predictions about future energy development ===
Ever since the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]], the question of the future of energy supplies has occupied economists.
* 1865 — [[William Stanley Jevons]] published ''The Coal Question'' in which he claimed that reserves of coal would soon be exhausted and that there was no prospect of oil being an effective replacement.
* 1885 — [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]]: Little or no chance of oil in [[California]].
* 1891 — U.S. Geological Survey: Little or no chance of oil in [[Kansas]] or [[Texas]].
* 1914 — [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]]: Total future production of {{convert|5.7|Goilbbl|m3}}.
* 1939 — U.S. Department of the Interior: Reserves to last only 13 years.
* 1951 — U.S. Department of the Interior, Oil and Gas Division: Reserves to last 13 years.
(Data from Kahn ''et al.'' (1976) pp.94–5 ''infra'')
* 1956 — Geophysicist [[M. King Hubbert]] predicts U.S. oil production will peak between 1965 and 1970 (peaked in 1971). Also predicts world oil production will peak "within half a century" based on 1956 data. This is [[Peak oil (disambiguation)|Hubbert peak theory]].
* 1989 — Predicted peak by [[Colin Campbell (geologist)|Colin Campbell]] ("Oil Price Leap in the Early Nineties," Noroil, December 1989, pages 35-38.)
* 2004 — OPEC estimates it will nearly double oil output by 2025 (Opec Oil Outlook to 2025 Table 4, Page 12)
The [[history of perpetual motion machines]] is a long list of failed and sometimes fraudulent inventions of machines which produce useful energy "from nowhere" — that is, without requiring additional energy input.
==See also==
: ''Main list: ''[[List of basic energy development topics]]''
{{Portalpar|Sustainable development|Sustainable development.svg}}
{{EnergyPortal}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*[[Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change]]
*[[Energy planning]]
*[[Energy policy]]
*[[Energy policy of the United States]]
*[[Environmental concerns with electricity generation]]
*[[List of emerging technologies]]
*[[List of environment topics]]
*[[Nuclear energy policy]]
*[[Proposed future transport]]
*[[Renewable energy development]]
*[[World energy resources and consumption]]
</div>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
<div class="references-small">
*Serra, J. "Alternative Fuel Resource Development", Clean and Green Fuels Fund, (2006).
*Bilgen, S. and K. Kaygusuz, ''Renewable Energy for a Clean and Sustainable Future'', Energy Sources 26, 1119 (2004).
*''Energy analysis of Power Systems'', UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 57 (2004).
</div>
==Relevant journals==
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15567036.asp ''Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects'']
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15567249.asp ''Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy'']
* [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/15435075.asp ''International Journal of Green Energy'']
==External links==
*[http://www.recabs.org/ RECaBS REcalculator] Interactive Renewable Energy Calculator — compare renewable energy to conventional energy sources
*[http://www.zeroenergydesign.org/ Free access to view over 300 U.S. Department of Energy Workshop Slides Online: Alternative Future Energy]
{{Environmental technology}}
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