Engineering 9251 226145409 2008-07-17T00:53:30Z Tasoskessaris 894320 [[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 226144587 by [[Special:Contributions/72.70.224.241|72.70.224.241]] ([[User talk:72.70.224.241|talk]])rvv to version by Inkling {{Portal | Engineering | Nuvola apps kcmsystem.svg | 35}} <!--This article is in US English--> '''Engineering''' is the [[discipline]] and [[profession]] of applying [[science|scientific]] [[knowledge]] and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement [[material]]s, [[structure]]s, [[machine]]s, [[device]]s, [[system]]s, and [[process (engineering)|processes]] that realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria. The [[American Engineers' Council for Professional Development|American Engineers&rsquo; Council for Professional Development]] (ECPD, the predecessor of [[ABET]]<ref name="ABET History">[http://www.abet.org/history.shtml ABET History]</ref>) has defined engineering as follows: <blockquote>&ldquo;[T]he creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.&rdquo;<ref name="ECPD">[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1941Sci....94Q.456. Science, Volume 94, Issue 2446, pp. 456: Engineers' Council for Professional Development]</ref><ref name="ECPD Canons">[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/26393909&referer=brief_results Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers]</ref><ref name="ECPD Definition on Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105842/engineering Engineers' Council for Professional Development definition on Encyclopaedia Britannica] (Includes Britannica article on Engineering)</ref></blockquote> One who practices engineering is called an '''[[engineer]]''', and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as [[Professional Engineer]], [[Chartered Engineer]], or [[Incorporated Engineer]]. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized [[fields of engineering|subdisciplines]], each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of [[technology]]. Skullz ==Main Branches of Engineering== {{Main|List of engineering branches}} Engineering, much like science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main Branches of Engineering are categorized as follows:<ref name="Imperial">[http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/engineering/teaching/studying Imperial College London England]: ''Studying engineering at Imperial: Engineering courses are offered in five main branches of engineering: aeronautical, chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical. There are also courses in computing science, software engineering, information systems engineering, materials science and engineering, mining engineering and petroleum engineering.''</ref><ref name="Edinburgh">[http://www.chemeng.ed.ac.uk/ U of Edinburgh] ''Welcome to Chemical Engineering, which is celebrating 50 years this academic year, is part of the School of Engineering and Electronics (SEE), which includes the other three main engineering disciplines of electrical and electronic engineering, civil engineering and mechanical engineering.''</ref> *[[Aerospace Engineering]] - The design of [[aircraft]], [[spacecraft]] and related topics. *[[Chemical Engineering]] - The conversion of raw materials into usable commodities. *[[Civil Engineering]] - The design and construction of public and private works, such as [[infrastructure]], [[bridge]]s and buildings. *[[Electrical Engineering]] - The design of electrical systems, such as [[transformer]]s, as well as electronic goods. *[[Mechanical Engineering]] - The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as [[Internal combustion engine|engine]]s, [[powertrain]]s, [[kinematic chain]]s and [[vibration isolation]] equipment. With the rapid advancement of [[High tech|Technology]] many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as [[Computer Engineering]], [[Software Engineering]], [[Nanotechnology]], [[Molecular engineering]], [[Mechatronics]] etc. These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering. For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics. ==Methodology== [[Image:Dampfturbine Montage01.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Design of a [[turbine]] requires collaboration from engineers from many fields]] Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, Engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects, as a result, they keep on learning new material throughout their career. If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, [[Safety engineering|safety]], marketability, productibility, and [[Serviceability (computer)|serviceability]]. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive [[specifications]] for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. ===Computer use=== [[Image:CFD Shuttle.jpg|thumb|right|A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the [[Space Shuttle]] during re-entry.]] As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business [[application software]] there are a number of computer aided applications ([[CAx]]) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using [[numerical method]]s. One of the most widely used tools in the profession is [[computer-aided design]] (CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with [[Digital mockup]] (DMU) and [[Computer-aided engineering|CAE]] software such as [[FEM|finite element method analysis]] allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of [[Product Data Management]] software.<ref>{{cite web | last = Arbe | first = Katrina | title = PDM: Not Just for the Big Boys Anymore | publisher = ThomasNet | date = 2001.05.07 | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2001/05/pdm_not_just_fo.html }} </ref> There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as [[Computer-aided manufacture]] (CAM) software to generate [[CNC]] machining instructions; [[Manufacturing Process Management]] software for production engineering; [[Electronic design automation|EDA]] for [[printed circuit board]] (PCB) and circuit [[schematic]]s for electronic engineers; [[Maintenance, repair and operations|MRO]] applications for maintenance management; and [[Architecture, engineering and construction|AEC]] software for civil engineering. In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as [[Product Lifecycle Management]] (PLM).<ref>{{cite web | last = Arbe | first = Katrina | title = The Latest Chapter in CAD Software Evaluation | publisher = ThomasNet | date = 2003.05.22 | url = http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2003/05/the_latest_chap.html }} </ref> ==Engineering in a social context== Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are [[pro bono]] engineering and [[open design]] engineering. By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility, as represented by many of the [[Engineering society|Engineering Institutions]] codes of practice and [[ethics]]. Whereas medical ethics is a well-established field with considerable consensus, engineering ethics is far less developed, and engineering projects can be subject to considerable controversy. Just a few examples of this from different engineering disciplines are the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s, the [[Three Gorges Dam]], the design and use of [[Sports Utility Vehicles]] and the extraction of [[Fuel oil|oil]]. There is a growing trend amongst western engineering companies to enact serious [[Corporate responsibility|Corporate and Social Responsibility]] policies, but many companies do not have these. Engineering is a key driver of human development.<ref name="Human Dev">[http://www.ewb-uk.org/system/files?file=Hinton%20lecture%20text%20FINAL.pdf PDF on Human Development]</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the [[Millennium Development Goals]] requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.<ref name="MDG">[http://www.sistech.co.uk/media/ICEBrunelLecture2006.pdf?Docu_id=1420&faculty=14 MDG info pdf]</ref> All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind: *[[Engineers Without Borders]] *Engineers Against Poverty *Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief *[[Engineers for a Sustainable World]] ==Cultural presence== Engineering is a well respected profession. For example, in Canada it ranks as one of the public's most trusted professions.<ref>{{cite paper|author=Leger Marketing|date=2006|url=http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/story.html?id=b7647f97-f370-451e-9506-2f116da2c6a1&k=38584&p=2|title=Sponsorship effect seen in survey of most-trusted professions: pollster}}, pg. 2, ''The occupations most-trusted by Canadians, according to a poll by Leger Marketing... Engineering 88 per cent of respondents...''</ref> Sometimes engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in [[popular culture]], and has also been thought to be the domain of [[nerd]]s. For example, the cartoon character [[Dilbert]] is an engineer. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people, in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the chartered accountant at tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer. This has not always been so - most British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom were the [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel| Brunels]], the [[George Stephenson| Stephensons]], [[Thomas Telford| Telford]] and their contemporaries. In [[science fiction]] engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. The ''[[Star Trek]]'' characters [[Montgomery Scott]], [[Geordi La Forge]], [[Miles O'Brien (Star Trek)|Miles O'Brien]], [[B'Elanna Torres]], and [[Charles Tucker]] are famous examples. Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the "[[Iron Ring]]"--a stainless steel or iron ring worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada for [[the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]] as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession. Some years later in 1972 this practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States. Members of the US [[Order of the Engineer]] accept this ring as a pledge to uphold the proud history of engineering. A [[Professional Engineer]]'s name may be followed by the [[post-nominal letters]] PE or P.Eng in North America. In much of Europe a professional engineer is denoted by the letters IR, while in the UK and much of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] the term [[Chartered Engineer]] applies and is denoted by the letters CEng. ==Legislation== {{Citations missing|date=April 2007}} In most Western countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a [[Professional Engineer]] or a [[Chartered Engineer]] or an [[Incorporated Engineer]]. Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a [[professional]] must provide guidance gained through [[education]] and experience. In the United States, each state tests and licenses [[Professional Engineer]]s. In much of Europe and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] professional accreditation is provided by [[Engineering society|Engineering Institutions]], such as the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] from the UK. The engineering institutions of the UK are some of the oldest in the world, and provide accreditation to many engineers around the world. In Canada the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 4 or more years of experience in an engineering-related field will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists [(APEGBC)]<ref>http://www.apeg.bc.ca</ref> in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng. The federal US government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration. Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur. Therefore, the [[Professional Engineer]], [[Chartered Engineer]], or [[Incorporated Engineer]] adheres to a strict code of [[ethics]]. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Refer also to the [[Washington accord]] for international accreditation details of professional engineering degrees. ==Relationships with other disciplines== ===Science=== {{quote|''Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.'' |[[Theodore von Kármán]]}} There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of [[materials]] and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for practical action based on those interpretations.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists. In the book ''What Engineers Know and How They Know It'',<ref name="vincenti">{{cite book|last=Vincenti|first=Walter G. |title=What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993}}</ref> [[Walter Vincenti]] asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic [[physics]] and/or [[chemistry]] are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the [[Navier-Stokes equations]] to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of [[metal fatigue|Miner's rule]] to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the [[Method of variation of parameters|method of parameter variation]]. As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, <ref name="Fung">{{cite book|title=Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung and P. Tong|publisher=World Scientific|year=2001}}</ref> "Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born." ===Medicine and biology=== [[Image:Leonardo self.jpg|thumb|left|[[Leonardo DaVinci]], seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.<ref name="Bjerklie, David"/> He is also known for his studies on [[human anatomy]] and [[physiognomy]]]] The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. [[Medicine]] aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the [[human body]], if necessary, through the use of [[technology]]. Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, [[brain implant]]s and [[Artificial pacemaker|pacemaker]]s.<ref name="Boston U"> [http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University]</ref><ref name="IEEE foreign parts"> [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=/iel5/2188/27125/01204814.pdf?arnumber=1204814 IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body implants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary:Feeling threatened by cyborgs?]</ref> The fields of [[Bionics]] and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing [[biology]] with technology. This has led to fields such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neural networks]], [[fuzzy logic]], and [[robot]]ics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.<ref name="IME">[http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/ime/mission.html Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.]</ref><ref name="IEEE">[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=51 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and clinical engineering...]</ref> Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and [[empirical]] knowledge is an integral part of both. Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods.<ref name="Royal Academy">[http://www.acmedsci.ac.uk/images/pressRelease/1170256174.pdf Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational and/or mathematical modelling and experimentation.]</ref> The heart for example functions much like a pump,<ref name="Science Museum of Minnesota">[http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/lesson5a.htm Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump]</ref> the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,<ref name="Minnesota State University emuseum">[http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.html Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers]</ref> the brain produces [[Signal (electrical engineering)|electrical signal]]s etc.<ref name="UC Berkeley News">[http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2005/02/23_brainwaves.shtml UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure] </ref> These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of [[biomedical engineering]] that utilizes concepts developed in both disciplines. Newly emerging branches of science, such as [[Systems biology]], are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.<ref name="Royal Academy"/> ===Art=== There are connections between engineering and art;<ref name="Lehigh University project">[http://www3.lehigh.edu/News/news_story.asp?iNewsID=1781&strBack=%2Fcampushome%2FDefault.asp Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project to demonstrate the relationship between art and architecture and engineering] </ref> they are direct in some fields, for example, [[architecture]], [[landscape architecture]] and [[industrial design]] (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a University's [[Faculty (university)|Faculty]] of Engineering); and indirect in others.<ref name="Lehigh University project"/><ref name="National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering">[http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=107990&org=NSF National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives]</ref><ref name="MIT World:The Art of Engineering">[http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/362/ MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970.]</ref><ref name="University of Texas at Dallas">[http://iiae.utdallas.edu/ University of Texas at Dallas:The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering]</ref> The [[Art Institute of Chicago]], for instance, held an exhibition about the art of [[NASA]]'s aerospace design.<ref name="NASA">[http://www.artic.edu/aic/exhibitions/nasa/overview.html Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA’s Aeronautical Research]</ref> [[Robert Maillart]]'s bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.<ref name="Princeton U">[http://press.princeton.edu/titles/137.html Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote:no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic implications...]</ref> At the [[University of South Florida]], an engineering professor, through a grant with the [[National Science Foundation]], has developed a course that connects art and engineering.<ref name="Chief engineer">[http://www.chiefengineer.org/content/content_display.cfm/seqnumber_content/2697.htm quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers..]</ref><ref name="National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering"/> Among famous historical figures [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] is a well known [[Renaissance]] artist and engineer, and a prime example of the [[nexus]] between [[art]] and engineering.<ref name="Bjerklie, David">Bjerklie, David. “The Art of Renaissance Engineering.” MIT’s Technology Review Jan./Feb.1998: 54-9. Article explores the concept of the “artist-engineer”, an individual who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of “artist-engineer”-dom, Quote2: “It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician.” (Bjerklie 58) </ref><ref name="Drew U">[http://www.users.drew.edu/~ejustin/leonardo.htm Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper]</ref> ===Other fields=== In [[Political science]] the term ''engineering'' has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of [[Social engineering]] and [[Political engineering]], which deal with forming [[political structure|political]] and [[social structure]]s using engineering methodology coupled with [[political science]] principles.. ==See also== : ''Main lists: ''[[List of basic engineering topics]] and [[List of engineering topics|Alphabetical list of engineering topics]]'' <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> *[[List of engineers]] *[[Engineering society]] *[[List of aerospace engineering topics]] *[[List of basic chemical engineering topics]] *[[List of electrical engineering topics]] *[[List of genetic engineering topics]] *[[List of mechanical engineering topics]] *[[List of nanoengineering topics]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Design]] *[[Earthquake engineering]] *[[Engineering economics]] *[[Engineers Without Borders]] *[[Sustainable engineering]] *[[Industrial design]] *[[Open hardware]] *[[Science and technology]] </div> ==References== {{reflist|2}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |last=Billington |first=David P. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date=1996-06-05 |year= |month= |publisher=Wiley; New Ed edition |location= |language= |isbn=0-471-14026-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Petroski |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Petroski |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date=1992-03-31 |year= |month= |publisher=Vintage |location= |language= |isbn=0-679-73416-3 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Petroski |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Petroski |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as They are |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date=1994-02-01 |year= |month= |publisher=Vintage |location= |language= |isbn=0-679-74039-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Lord |first=Charles R. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=Guide to Information Sources in Engineering |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date=2000-08-15 |year= |month= |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |location= |language= |isbn=1-563-08699-9 |oclc= |doi=10.1336/1563086999 |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Vincenti |first=Walter G. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History |origdate= |origyear= |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=1993-02-01 |month= |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-80184588-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} *{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Donald R. |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya |origdate= |origyear=1206 |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |date= |year=1973-12-31 |month= |publisher=Pakistan Hijara Council |location= |language= |isbn=969-8016-25-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Wiktionarypar|engineering}} {{Wikiversity|Engineering}} *National Society of Professional Engineers article on [http://www.nspe.org/govrel/gr2-ps1737.asp Licensure and Qualifications for the Practice of Engineering] *[http://www.asee.org/ American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)] *The US Library of Congress [http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/SciRefGuides/eng-history.html ''Engineering in History'' bibliography] *ICES-The Institute for Complex Engineered Systems<ref>http://www.ices.cmu.edu</ref> * [http://www.tc.umn.edu/~tmisa/biblios/hist_engineering.html History of engineering bibliography] at [[University of Minnesota]] *[[National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering]] {{Technology}} [[Category:Engineering| ]] [[Category:Occupations]] [[af:Ingenieurswese]] [[am:መሀንዲስነት]] [[ar:هندسة تطبيقية]] [[an:Incheniería]] [[ast:Inxeniería]] [[bn:প্রকৌশলবিদ্যা]] [[bs:Inženjering]] [[br:Ijinerezh]] [[bg:Инженерство]] [[ca:Enginyeria]] [[cs:Inženýrství]] [[cy:Peirianneg]] [[da:Ingeniørvidenskab]] [[de:Ingenieurwissenschaft]] [[eml:Insnierìa]] [[es:Ingeniería]] [[eo:Inĝenierarto]] [[eu:Ingeniaritza]] [[fr:Ingénierie]] [[fy:Technyk]] [[fur:Inzegnerie]] [[gd:Innleadaireachd]] [[gl:Enxeñaría]] [[hak:Kûng-chhàng-ho̍k]] [[ko:공학]] [[hi:अभियान्त्रिकी]] [[io:Injenior-arto]] [[id:Teknik]] [[ia:Ingenieria]] [[iu:ᑎᑎᕋᐅᔭᖅ]] [[is:Verkfræði]] [[it:Ingegneria]] [[he:הנדסה]] [[ka:საინჟინრო მეცნიერება]] [[sw:Uhandisi]] [[ht:Enjenieri]] [[lad:Enjenyeriya]] [[lv:Inženierija]] [[lo:ວິສະວະກຳ]] [[lt:Inžinerija]] [[li:Techniek]] [[hu:Mérnöki tudomány]] [[mk:Инженерство]] [[mr:अभियांत्रिकी]] [[ms:Kejuruteraan]] [[nl:Techniek]] [[ja:工学]] [[nov:Injenieria]] [[pl:Inżynieria]] [[pt:Engenharia]] [[ro:Inginerie]] [[ru:Технические науки]] [[sm:'Inisinia]] [[sco:Ingineerin]] [[scn:Ncignirìa]] [[simple:Engineering]] [[sl:Tehnika]] [[sr:Инжењеринг]] [[fi:Tekniikka]] [[tl:Inhinyeriya]] [[ta:பொறியியல்]] [[th:วิศวกรรมศาสตร์]] [[tr:Mühendislik]] [[uk:Інженерія]] [[ur:ہندسیات]] [[vec:Engegneria]] [[vo:Kaenalav]] [[yi:אינזשעניריע]] [[bat-smg:Inžėnerėjė]] [[zh:工程学]]