Eskimo 9491 225939088 2008-07-16T02:59:17Z Twas Now 977596 /* Myths and Misconceptions about the Eskimo */ caps {{otheruses}} '''Eskimos''' or '''esquimaux''' are [[indigenous peoples]] who have traditionally inhabited the [[circumpolar]] region from eastern [[Siberia]], across [[Alaska]] and [[Canada]], and all of [[Greenland]]. ==Derivation== There are two main groups referred to as Eskimo: [[Yupik]] and [[Inuit]]. A third group, [[Unangam]], is related. The ''Yupik'' language dialects and cultures in Alaska and eastern Siberia have evolved in place beginning with the original ([[Dorset culture|pre-Dorset]]) Eskimo culture that developed in Alaska. Approximately 4000 years ago the ''Unangam'' (also known as [[Aleut]]) culture became distinctly separate, and evolved into a non-Eskimo culture. Approximately 1500-2000 years ago, apparently in Northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. The Inuit language branch became distinct and in only several hundred years spread across northern Alaska, Canada and into Greenland. At about the same time, the Thule Technology also developed in northwestern Alaska and very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo people, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them. The earliest known Eskimo cultures were Pre-Dorset Technology, which appear to have been a fully developed Eskimo culture that dates at 5000 years ago. They appear to have evolved in Alaska from people using the Archaic Small Tools Technology, who probably had migrated to Alaska from Siberia at least 2 to 3 thousand years earlier; though they might have been in Alaska as far back as 10 to 12 thousand years or more. There are similar artifacts found in Siberia going back to perhaps 18,000 years ago. It is believed that the Mongols of China, Eskimos, and probably the Korean people too all share a common ancestor in northern Asia. Today the two main groups of Eskimos are the Inuit of northern Alaska, Canada and Greenland, and the Yupik, comprising speakers of four distinct [[Yupik languages]] and originating in western Alaska, in [[South Central Alaska]] along the [[Gulf of Alaska]] coast, and in the Russian Far East. ==Languages== The [[Eskimo-Aleut]] family of languages includes two cognate branches. The [[Unangam| Unangam]] ([[Aleut language|Aleut]]) branch and the Eskimo branch. The Eskimo sub-family consists of the [[Inuit language]] and [[Yupik language]] sub-groups.<ref name="FortecueM"> {{Citation | title = "Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates" | coauthors = Michael Fortescue, Steven Jacobson, and Lawance Kaplan | publisher = [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]}}</ref> The [[Sireniki Eskimo language|Sirenikski language]] is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.<ref name="FortecueM"/><ref name="kaplanB">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2001-12-10). [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html "Comparative Yupik and Inuit"]. [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> Sirenikski is virtually extinct.<ref name="FortecueM"/><ref name="kaplanB"/> Inuit languages comprise a [[dialect continuum]], or dialect chain, that stretches from [[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] and [[Norton Sound]] in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects can easily understand one another, but speakers of dialects at the extreme distant ends of the range have significant difficulty. Seward Peninsula dialects in Western Alaska, where much of the Inupiat culture has only been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages. Eastern Greenlandic, at the opposite end of the Inuit range has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance.<ref name="FortecueM"/><ref name="kaplanB"/> The four Yupik languages have existed in place, which probably includes the locations where Eskimo culture and language began, for much longer than the Inuit language. [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] (Sugpiaq), [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Naukan]] (Naukanski), and [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], are distinct languages with limited mutual intelligibility.<ref name="FortecueM"/> Even the dialectic differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically.<ref name="kaplanB"/> While grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages.<ref name="kaplanB"/> ==Nomenclature== {{see also|Origin of the name Eskimo}} In Canada and Greenland<ref name="bartlebyinuit">usage note, [http://www.bartleby.com/61/10/I0211000.html Inuit], ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'': Fourth Edition, 2000</ref><ref name="kaplan"/><ref name="stern1">[http://books.google.com/books?id=3UHTsUmt1PEC&dq=isbn:0810850583 Historical Dictionary of the Inuit By Pamela R. Stern]</ref><ref name="ostg1">[http://www.ostgroenland-hilfe.de/en/projekt.html Ostgroenland-Hilfe Project]</ref> the term ''Eskimo'' is widely held to be [[pejorative]]<ref name="bartlebyinuit"/><ref name="natlang"/> and has fallen out of favor, largely supplanted by the term ''Inuit''. However, while ''Inuit'' describes all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska the term ''Eskimo'' is commonly used, because it includes both [[Yupik]] and [[Inupiat]], while ''Inuit'' is not accepted as a collective term or even specifically used for ''Inupiat'' (which technically is ''Inuit''). No universal replacement term for ''Eskimo'', inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.<ref name="kaplan"/> The primary reason that ''Eskimo'' is considered derogatory is the false<ref name="aueo">[http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxeskimo.html "Eskimo" by Mark Israel]</ref><ref name="igoddard">{{cite book | last =Goddard | first =Ives | authorlink =Ives Goddard | title =Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 5 (Arctic) | publisher =[[Smithsonian Institution]] | date =1984 | isbn = 978-0160045806}}</ref><ref name="mailhot">{{cite journal | last =Mailhot | first =Jose | title =L'etymologie de "esquimau" revuew et corrigee | journal =Etudes/Inuit/Studies | volume =Vol. 2 | issue =Issue. 2 | date=1978}}</ref><ref name="creeml">[http://www.nisto.com/cree/mail/cree-1997-11.txt Cree Mailing List Digest November 1997]</ref> perception that it means "eaters of raw meat".<ref name="bartlebyeskimo">[http://www.bartleby.com/61/24/E0212400.html Eskimo], ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'': Fourth Edition, 2000</ref><ref name="natlang">[http://www.native-languages.org/iaq23.htm Setting the Record Straight About Native Languages: What Does "Eskimo" Mean In Cree?]</ref> There are two different etymologies in scientific literature for the term ''Eskimo''. The most well-known comes from [[Ives Goddard]] at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] , who says it means "Snowshoe netters".<ref name="aueo"/> Quebec linguist Jose Mailhot, who speaks [[montagnais|Innu-Montagnais]] (which Mailhot and Goddard agree is the language from which the word originated), published a definitive study in 1978 stating that it means "people who speak a different language".<ref name="mailhot"/><ref name="creeml"/> Nevertheless, while the word is not inherently pejorative, since the 1970s in Canada and Greenland ''Eskimo'' has widely been considered offensive, owing to folklore and derogatory usage. In government usage the term has been replaced with ''Inuit''. The preferred term in Canada's Central Arctic is ''Inuinnaq'',<ref name=translate>{{cite book|last=Ohokak|first=G.|coauthors=M. Kadlun, B. Harnum|title=Inuinnaqtun-English Dictionary|publisher=Kitikmeot Heritage Society}}</ref> and in the eastern Canadian Arctic ''Inuit''. The language is often called ''Inuktitut'', though other local designations are also used. The Inuit of Greenland refer to themselves as ''Greenlanders'' or, in their own language, ''Kalaallit'', and to their language as ''Greenlandic'' or ''Kalaallisut''.<ref name="kaplan">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2002). [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/inuitoreskimo.html "Inuit or Eskimo: Which names to use?"]. [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> Because of the linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences between Yupik and Inuit peoples there is uncertainty as to the acceptance of any term encompassing all Yupik and Inuit people. There has been some movement to use ''Inuit'', and the [[Inuit Circumpolar Council]], representing a circumpolar population of 150,000 Inuit and Yupik people of Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, in its charter defines ''Inuit'' for use within the ICC as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)."<ref name="ICCcharter">Inuit Circumpolar Council. (2006). [http://inuitcircumpolar.com/index.php?auto_slide=&ID=374&Lang=En&Parent_ID=&current_slide_num= "Charter."] Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> However, even the Inuit people in Alaska refer themselves as Inupiat (the language is Inupiaq) and do not typically use the term Inuit. Thus, in [[Alaska]], ''Eskimo'' is in common usage, and is the preferred term when speaking collectively of all Inupiat and Yupik people, or of all Inuit and Yupik people of the world.<ref name="kaplan"/> Alaskans also use the term [[Alaska Native]], which is inclusive of all Eskimo, [[Aleut]] and [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] people of Alaska, and is of course exclusive of Inuit or Yupik people originating outside the state. The term ''Alaska Native'' has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the [[United States]] as a result of the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]] of 1971. The term "Eskimo" is also used world wide in linguistic or ethnographic works to denote the larger branch of Eskimo-Aleut languages, the smaller branch being Aleut. ==Myths and misconceptions about the Eskimo== *"They live in [[Igloos]]." Actually only some tribes used igloos, and then only as temporary shelters. They no longer do so. *"They have thousands of words for [[snow]]." See [[Eskimo words for snow]]. ==Inuit== {{Main|Inuit}} [[Image:Eskimo Family NGM-v31-p564-2.jpg|thumb|right|An Inuit family, c.1917]] The Inuit inhabit the [[Arctic]] and northern [[Bering Sea]] coasts of [[Alaska]] and Arctic coasts of the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], [[Quebec]], [[Labrador]], and [[Greenland]]. Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, sea mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, tools, and shelter. ===Alaska's Inupiat=== {{Main|Inupiat}} The Inupiat people are the [[Inuit]] people of Alaska's [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic]] and [[North Slope Borough, Alaska|North Slope]] boroughs and the [[Bering Strait]]s region, including the [[Seward Peninsula]]. [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], the northernmost city in the United States, is in the Inupiaq region. Their language is known as [[Inupiaq language|Inupiaq]]. ===Canada's Inuit=== {{Main|Inuit}} Canadian Inuit live primarily in [[Nunavut]] (a territory of Canada), [[Nunavik]] (the northern part of [[Quebec]]) and in [[Nunatsiavut]] (the Inuit settlement region in [[Labrador]]). ===Inuvialuit=== {{main|Inuvialuit}} The Inuvialuit live in the western [[Canadian Arctic]] region. Their homeland - the [[Inuvialuit Settlement Region]] - covers the [[Arctic Ocean]] coastline area from the [[Alaska]]n border east to [[Amundsen Gulf]] and includes the western [[Canadian Arctic islands|Canadian Arctic Islands]]. The land was demarked in 1984 by the [[Inuvialuit Final Agreement]]. ===Kalaallit=== {{main|Kalaallit}} The Kalaallit live in [[Greenland]], which is called Kalaallit Nunaat in [[Kalaallisut language|Kalaallisut]]. ==Yupik== {{main | Yupik}} The Yupik are [[indigenous peoples|indigenous or aboriginal]] peoples who live along the coast of western [[Alaska]], especially on the [[Yukon River|Yukon]]-[[Kuskokwim River|Kuskokwim]] delta and along the Kuskokwim River ([[Central Alaskan Yup'ik]]), in southern Alaska (the [[Alutiiq]]) and along the eastern coast of [[Chukchi Peninsula|Chukotka]] in the [[Russian Far East]] and [[St. Lawrence Island]] in western Alaska (the [[Siberian Yupik]]). The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of [[marine mammal]]s, especially [[seals]], [[walrus]], and [[whales]].<ref>Yupik. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 13, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.search.eb.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/eb/article-9078135</ref> ===Alutiiq=== {{Main|Alutiiq}} The Alutiiq also called ''Pacific Yupik'' or ''Sugpiaq'', are a southern, coastal branch of [[Yupik]]. They are not to be confused with the [[Aleut]]s, who live further to the southwest, including along the [[Aleutian Islands]]. They traditionally lived a coastal lifestyle, subsisting primarily on ocean resources such as [[salmon]], [[halibut]], and [[whale]], as well as rich land resources such as berries and land mammals. Alutiiq people today live in coastal fishing communities, where they work in all aspects of the modern economy, while also maintaining the cultural value of subsistence. The [[Alutiiq language]] is relatively close to that spoken by the [[Yupik]] in the [[Bethel, Alaska]] area, but is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the [[Alaska Peninsula]] and on [[Kodiak Island]], and the Chugach dialect, is spoken on the southern [[Kenai Peninsula]] and in [[Prince William Sound]]. Residents of [[Nanwalek, Alaska| Nanwalek]], located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near [[Seldovia, Alaska| Seldovia]], speak what they call Sugpiaq and are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the mere hundreds, Alutiiq communities are currently in the process of revitalizing their language. ===Central Alaskan Yup'ik=== {{Main|Central Alaskan Yup'ik}} ''Yup'ik'', with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language]], who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern [[Norton Sound]] to the north side of [[Bristol Bay]], on the [[Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta]], and on [[Nelson Island (Alaska)|Nelson Island]]. The use of the apostrophe in the name ''Yup'ik'' denotes a longer pronunciation of the ''p'' sound than found in Siberian Yupik. Of all the [[:Category:Indigenous languages of Alaska| Alaska Native languages]], Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language. There are five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik, including General Central Yup'ik and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, Nunivak, dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called ''Cup'ik''.<ref name="centralyup'ik">Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/cy.html "Central Alaskan Yup'ik."] [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> ===Siberian Yupik=== {{Main|Siberian Yupik}} Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the [[Chukchi Peninsula]] in [[Siberia]] in the [[Russian Far East]]<ref name="kaplanB"/> and in the villages of [[Gambell, Alaska| Gambell]] and [[Savoonga, Alaska| Savoonga]] on [[St. Lawrence Island]] in Alaska.<ref name="siberianyupik">Alaska Native Language Center. (2001-12-07). [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/sy.html "Siberian Yupik."] [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> The [[Siberian Yupik language| Central Siberian Yupik]] spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska still speak the language, and it is still the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children.<ref name="siberianyupik"/> ===Naukan=== {{Main|Naukan}} About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak the Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]] in [[Siberia]].<ref name="kaplanB"/> ==Sireniki Eskimos== {{Main|Sireniki Eskimos}} Some speakers of [[Siberian Yupik language]]s used to speak a very peculiar Eskimo language in the past, before they underwent a [[language shift]]. These former speakers of [[Sireniki Eskimo language]] inhabited settlements Sireniki, Imtuk, and some small villages stretching to the west from Sireniki along south-eastern coasts of [[Chukchi Peninsula]],<ref name=VES>[http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf Vakhtin 1998]: 162</ref> they lived in neighborhood with [[Siberian Yupik]] and [[Chukchi people]]s. As early as in 1895, Imtuk was already a settlement with mixed population, Sireniki Eskimos and Ungazigmit<ref>Меновщиков 1964: 7</ref> (the latter belonging to [[Siberian Yupik]]). Sireniki Eskimo culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi (witnessed also by folktale [[Motif (narrative)|motifs]]<ref name=rein-rape>Меновщиков 1964: 132</ref>), also the language shows [[Chukchi language]] influences.<ref name=linfranc>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Menovshchikov 1990]: 70</ref> The above mentioned peculiarities of this (already [[Extinct language|extinct]]) Eskimo language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives:<ref>Меновщиков 1964: 6–7</ref> in the past, Sireniki Eskimos even had to use the unrelated [[Chukchi language]] as a [[lingua franca]] for communicating with Siberian Yupik.<ref name=linfranc/> Many words are formed from entirely different [[Root (linguistics)|root]]s than in Siberian Yupik,<ref name=diff-root>Меновщиков 1964: 42</ref> but even the grammar has several peculiarities not only among Eskimo languages, but even inside the entire language family, thus, even compared to [[Aleut language|Aleut]]. For example, it is the only [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut language]] that lacks [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual number]],<ref name=only2>Меновщиков 1964: 38</ref> even its neighboring [[Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]] relatives have dual.<ref name=verb2>Меновщиков 1964: 81</ref> Little is known about the origin of this diversity. According to a supposition, the peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Eskimo groups,<ref>Меновщиков 1962: 11</ref><ref>Меновщиков 1964: 9</ref> being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. Influence by [[Chukchi language]] is clear.<ref name=linfranc/> Because of all these, the mere classification of Sireniki Eskimo language is not settled yet:<ref name=VE3>[http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf Vakhtin 1998]: 161</ref> Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Eskimo (at least, its possibility is mentioned),<ref name=VE3>[http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf Vakhtin 1998]: 161</ref><ref name=Vakh-Sir>Linguist List's description about [http://linguistlist.org/people/personal/get-personal-page2.cfm?PersonID=5548&RequestTimeout=500 Nikolai Vakhtin]'s book: [http://linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=938 ''The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes'']. The author's untransliterated (original) name is “[http://www.eu.spb.ru/univ/rector/index.htm Н.Б. Вахтин]”.</ref><ref name=icc-ch-lan>{{cite web |title=Языки эскимосов |work=ICC Chukotka |publisher=[[Inuit Circumpolar Council]] |language=Russian |url=http://www.icc.hotbox.ru/yaziki.htm}}</ref> but sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the [[Yupik languages|Yupik]] branch.<ref name=siryup>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91176 Ethnologue Report for Eskimo-Aleut]</ref><ref name=kapyup>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Kaplan 1990]: 136</ref> ==Dialects== {{Main|Eskimo-Aleut languages}} Inuit languages comprise a [[dialect continuum]], or dialect chain, that stretches from [[Unalakleet, Alaska| Unalaska]] and [[Norton Sound]] in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east all the way to Greenland. Changes from western (Inupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., ''kumlu'', meaning "thumb," changes to ''kuvlu'', changes to ''kublu'',<ref name=livingdict/> changes to ''kulluk'',<ref name=livingdict/> changes to ''kulluq''<ref name=livingdict>{{cite web|url=http://www.livingdictionary.com/search/viewResults.jsp?language=en&searchString=thumb&languageSet=all |title=thumb|work=Asuilaak Living Dictionary|accessdate=2007-11-25}}</ref>), and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.<ref name="kaplanB">Kaplan, Lawrence. (2001-12-10). [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/yupik_inuit.html "Comparative Yupik and Inuit"]. [[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.</ref> The four Yupik languages, including [[Alutiiq language| Alutiiq]] (Sugpiaq), [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language| Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Naukan]] (Naukanski), and [[Siberian Yupik| Siberian Yupik]] are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences, and demonstrating limited mutual intelligibility. Additionally, both Alutiiq Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages — Siberian Yupik and Naukanski Yupik — are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically, and differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any of one of the Yupik languages is greater than between any two Yupik languages.<ref name="kaplanB"/> The [[Sireniki Eskimo language|Sirenikski language]] is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.<ref name="kaplanB"/> An overview of the '''Eskimo-Aleut''' languages family is given below: :'''Aleut''' ::[[Aleut language]] :::Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60-80 speakers) :::Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers) :'''Eskimo''' (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit) ::[[Yupik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]] (10,000 speakers) ::[[Alutiiq]] or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers) ::[[Siberian Yupik language| Central Siberian Yupik]] or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1400 speakers) ::[[Naukan]] (70 speakers) ::[[Inuit language|Inuit]] or Inupik (75,000 speakers) :::[[Inupiaq language|Iñupiaq]] (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers) :::[[Inuvialuktun]] or Inuktun (western Canada; 765 speakers) :::[[Inuktitut]] (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and [[Inuinnaqtun]], 30,000 speakers) :::[[Kalaallisut language|Kalaallisut]] (Greenland, 47,000 speakers) :'''[[Sireniki Eskimo language]] (Sirenikskiy)''' (extinct) ==See also== * [[Aleut]] * [[Athabaskan]] * [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]] * [[Saqqaq culture]] * [[Igloo]] * [[Eskimo kinship]] * [[Shamanism among Eskimo peoples]] * [[Eskimo words for snow]] * [[Inuit mythology]] * [[Sedna (mythology)]] * [[Nalukataq|Nalukataq -- traditional blanket toss celebrations]] ==Notes== <references/> ==References== * {{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lawrence D. |chapter=The Language of the Alaskan Inuit |pages=131–158 |editor=Dirmid R. F. Collis |title=Arctic Languages. An Awakening |publisher=UNESCO |location=Vendôme |year=1990 |isbn=92-3-102661-5 |chapterurl=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf |format=pdf}} * {{cite book |last=Menovshchikov |first=Georgy (= Г. А. Меновщиков) |chapter=Contemporary Studies of the Eskimo-Aleut Languages and Dialects: A Progress Report |pages=69–76 |editor=Dirmid R. F. Collis |title=Arctic Languages. An Awakening |publisher=UNESCO |location=Vendôme |year=1990 |isbn=92-3-102661-5 |chapterurl=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf |format=pdf}} * {{cite book |last=Vakhtin |first=Nikolai |chapter=Endangered Languages in Northeast Siberia: Siberian Yupik and other Languages of Chukotka |pages=159–173 |editor=Erich Kasten |title=Bicultural Education in the North: Ways of Preserving and Enhancing Indigenous Peoples’ Languages and Traditional Knowledge |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |location=Münster |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-89325-651-8 |chapterurl=http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf |format=pdf |url=http://waxmann.com/index2.html?kat/651.html}} ===Cyrillic=== * {{cite book |last=Меновщиков |first=Г. А. |title=Язык сиреникских эскимосов. Фонетика, очерк морфологии, тексты и словарь |publisher=[[:ru:Российская академия наук|Академия Наук СССР]]. Институт языкознания |location=Москва • Ленинград, |year=1964}} The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English: {{cite book |last=Menovshchikov |first=G. A. |title=Language of Sireniki Eskimos. Phonetics, morphology, texts and vocabulary |publisher=[[Russian Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences of the USSR]] |location=Moscow • Leningrad |year=1964}} ==External links== *[http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/asiatic_eskimos.shtml The Asiatic (Siberian) Eskimos] *[http://www.beginband.com/akstudies/ Eskimo Music] [[Category:Eskimos| ]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]] [[Category:Hunter-gatherers]] [[ar:الإسكيمو]] [[cs:Eskymáci]] [[de:Eskimo]] [[et:Eskimod]] [[es:Esquimal]] [[fr:Eskimo]] [[ko:에스키모]] [[hi:एस्किमो]] [[id:Eskimo]] [[is:Eskimói]] [[it:Eschimese]] [[ka:ესკიმოსები]] [[hu:Eszkimó]] [[nl:Eskimo]] [[ja:エスキモー]] [[nn:Eskimoar]] [[pt:Esquimó]] [[ru:Эскимосы]] [[sr:Ескими]] [[fi:Eskimot]] [[sv:Eskimå]] [[tr:Eskimo]] [[zh:愛斯基摩人]]