Eugenius Warming
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2008-06-11T22:24:42Z
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[[WP:AWB/T|Typo]]/[[Template:Citation|accessdate]]/[[MOS:SYL|date]]/URL format fixes, Replaced: [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2811757|'' → [http://chla.library.corne
{{Infobox_Scientist
|name = Eugen Warming
|image = Warming,Eugen-c1900.jpg
|birth_date = {{birth date|1841|11|3}}
|birth_place = [[Mandø]], [[Denmark]]
|nationality = {{DEN}}
|death_date = {{death date and age|1924|4|2|1841|11|3}}
|death_place = [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]
|field = [[Ecology]]
|work_institution = [[University of Copenhagen]]
|alma_mater =
|doctoral_advisor =
|doctoral_students = [[Christen C. Raunkiær]]<br>[[Wilhelm Johannsen]]<br>[[Frederik Børgesen]]<br>[[Morten Pedersen Porsild|Morten Porsild]]<br>[[Johannes Schmidt (biologist)|Johannes Schmidt]]<br>[[Olaf Hagerup]]<br>[[Henning Eiler Petersen]]<br>[[Carl Hansen Ostenfeld]]<br>[[Ove Paulsen]]<br />
|known_for = founding [[ecology]]<br>plant life forms<br>tropical botany
|prizes = Commander 1st Degree of the [[Order of the Dannebrog]]<br>Commander of the [[Royal Victorian Order]]<br>[[Imperial Order of the Rose]]<br>[[Erzherzog Rainer-Medaille]], Kaiserlich-königlichen zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien (1911)<br>Great Linnean Medal in Gold, [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] (1922)<br>
|footnotes =
|signature = EugenWarming-signature.jpg
}}
'''Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming''' ([[November 3]], [[1841]] – [[April 2]], [[1924]]), known as '''Eugen Warming''', was a [[Denmark|Danish]] botanist and a main founding figure of the scientific discipline of [[ecology]]. Warming wrote the first textbook ([[1895 in science|1895]]) on [[plant]] ecology, taught the first university course in ecology and gave the concept its meaning and content.
“''If one individual can be singled out to be honoured as the founder of ecology, Warming should gain precedence''”<ref name="Goodland (1975)">[http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3543715 Goodland, R.J. (1975) The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming’s jubilee. ''Oikos'', 26, 240-245.] [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-1299%281975%2926%3A2%3C240%3ATTOOEE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9]</ref>.
Warming wrote a number of textbooks on botany, plant geography and ecology, which were translated to several languages and were immensely influential at their time and later. Most important were ''[[Plantesamfund]]'' and ''Haandbog i den systematiske Botanik''.
{{botanist|Warm.|Warming, Eugen}}
==Early life and family life==
Warming was born on the small [[Wadden Sea]] island of [[Mandø]] as the only child of Jens Warming (1797-1844), parish minister, and Anna Marie von Bülow af Plüskow (1801-1863). After the early death of his father, he moved with his mother to her brother in [[Vejle]] in eastern [[Jutland]].
He married Johanne Margrethe Jespersen (known as Hanne Warming; 1850-1922) on November 10, 1871. They had eight children: Marie (1872-1947) married C.V. Prytz, Jens Warming (1873-1939), who became a professor in economy and statistics at the [[University of Copenhagen Faculty of Life Sciences|Royal Veterinary and Agricultural College]], Fro (1875-1880), Povl (1877-1878), Svend Warming (1879-1982), engineer at [[MAN B&W Diesel|Burmeister & Wain]] shipyard, Inge (1879-1893), Johannes (1882-1970), farmer, and Louise (1884-1964).<ref name="Prytz (1984)">Prytz, S. (1984) ''Warming – botaniker og rejsende''. Lynge, Bogan. 197 pp. A personal account by Warming’s granddaughter, based on family-owned letters.</ref>
External link: Ancestors and descendents [http://www.sadolins.com/genealogy/getperson.php?personID=I45993&tree=onetree]
==Education and career==
He attended high school at [[Ribe#Education in Ribe|Ribe Katedralskole]] and commenced 1859 studies of natural history at the [[University of Copenhagen]], but left university for three-and-a-half year (1863-1866) to act as secretary for the Danish [[Palaeontology|palaeontologist]] [[Peter Wilhelm Lund]], who lived and worked in [[Lagoa Santa]], [[Brazil]]. After his return to [[Europe]], he studied for a year under [[Carl Friederich Philipp von Martius|K.F.P. Martius]], [[Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli|K.W. Nägeli]] and [[Ludwig Adolph Timotheus Radlkofer|Ludwig Radlkofer]] in [[Munich]] and, in 1871, under [[Johannes Ludwig Emil Robert von Hanstein|J.L. von Hanstein]] in [[Bonn]]. Later in the same year (1871), he defended his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Dr.Phil.]] thesis in [[Copenhagen]].
The professorship in botany at the [[University of Copenhagen]] became vacant with the death of [[Anders Sandøe Ørsted (botanist)|A.S. Ørsted]] and Warming was the obvious candidate for a successor. However, he was passed over and the chair given to the older, but much less productive and original [[Ferdinand Didrichsen]]. Warming then became docent of [[botany]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]], the polytechnic ([[Polyteknisk Læreanstalt]]) and the [[University of Copenhagen Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences|Pharmaceutical College]] 1873-1882. He became professor in botany at ''Stockholms högskola'' (later [[Stockholm University]]) [[1882]]-[[1885]]. As the eldest professor, he was elected [[rector magnificus]]<ref>[http://www.su.se/pub/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=237&a=28126 Rektorer vid Stockholms högskola och Stockholms universitet]</ref>. In [[1885]], he became professor in botany at the [[University of Copenhagen]] and director of the [[Copenhagen Botanical Garden]] and held these positions until his retirement in [[December 31]], [[1910]]. He was [[rector magnificus]] of the [[University of Copenhagen]] 1907-1908.
He was a member of the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]] from [[1878]] to his death. As such, he served on the board of directors of the [[Carlsberg Foundation]] [[1889]]-[[1921]] and, because a biologist, on the board of the [[Carlsberg Laboratory]]. He also served on the board of the [[Geus|Geological Survey of Denmark]] [[1895]]-[[1917]].
Eugen Warming was a frequent visitor to foreign universities, e.g. a travel to [[University of Strasbourg|Strasbourg]] and [[Paris]] in 1876 and another to [[University of Göttingen|Göttingen]], [[University of Jena|Jena]], [[University of Bonn|Bonn]], [[University of Strasbourg|Strasbourg]] and [[Paris]] in 1880. He participated in several [[Scandinavian Scientist Conference]]s between 1868 and 1916 and in the similar [[Germany|German]] meeting in [[Breslau]] in [[1874 in science|1874]]. He joined the [[International Botanical Congress]]es in [[Amsterdam]] 1877, in [[Vienna]] 1905 and in [[Brussels]] 1910 and was president of the ‘Association internationale des botanistes‘ (1913). He attended the [[Linnaeus]] celebration in [[Uppsala]] 1907 and the [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] celebration in [[London]] 1908. He was honorary fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in London and honorary member of the Danish Botanical Society. He was a corresponding member of the botanical section of the [[French Academy of Sciences]]<ref>[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.60.1547.173 Science 22 August 1924: p. 174]</ref>.
He was made Commander 1st Degree of the [[Order of the Dannebrog]], Commander of the [[Royal Victorian Order]] and the Brazilian [[Imperial Order of the Rose]]. He is buried in [[Assistants Cemetery (Copenhagen)|Assistants Cemetery]] in [[Copenhagen]].
==Expeditions==
* 1863-1866: [[Brasil]], [[Lagoa Santa]]
* 1884 [[Greenland]] (Fylla expedition - view images: [http://www.arktiskebilleder.dk/stortb.php?storURL=data/grafik/reg/12-08/22937-15353-print.jpg©right=Arktisk%20Institut Fylla near Qeqertarsuaq/Godhavn]; [http://www.arktiskebilleder.dk/stortb.php?storURL=data/grafik/reg/12-08/p00951-6993-print.jpg©right= Officers and scientists, Warming in the centre]; [http://www.arktiskebilleder.dk/stortb.php?storURL=data/grafik/reg/12-08/p00950-6393-print.jpg©right= Warming in ''umiaq'' with crew])
* 1885: [[Norway]], [[Finnmark]]
* 1887: [[Norway]], [[Dovre region|Dovre]]
* 1891-1892: [[Venezuela]], [[Trinidad]] and the [[Danish West Indies]]
* 1895: [[Faroe Islands]]
In addition, shorter visits to the [[Alps]] and other proximate destinations.
==[[Plantesamfund|'Plantesamfund' or 'Oecology of Plants']]==
The book [[Plantesamfund]] was based on Warming’s lectures on plant geography at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. It gives an introduction to all major biomes of the world. Warming’s aim, and his major lasting impact on the development of ecology, was to explain how nature solved similar problems (drought, flooding, cold, salt, herbivory, etc.) in similar way, despite using very different ‘raw material’ (species of different origin) in different regions of the world. This was a remarkably modern view – completely different from the merely descriptive floristic plant geography prevailing during his time.
* Warming, E. (1895) '''''Plantesamfund''' - Grundtræk af den økologiske Plantegeografi''. P.G. Philipsens Forlag, Kjøbenhavn. 335 pp.
The subtitle alludes to the title of the book ''Grundtræk af den almindelige Plantegeografi'', published in 1822 (German edn 1823: ''Grundzüge einer allgemeinen Pflanzengeographie'') by [[Joakim Frederik Schouw|J.F. Schouw]], co-founder of the scientific [[phytogeography]].
''Plantesamfund'' was translated to [[German language|German]] in [[1896]] as
* ''Lehrbuch der ökologischen Pflanzengeographie - Eine Einführung in die Kenntnis der Pflanzenvereine'' by Emil Knoblauch. Berlin, Gebrüder Borntraeger, 1896. 412 pp. This edition, which was approved by Warming, rapidly ran out of print.
A second, unauthorized, edition was issued during 1902 by Paul Graebner, who put his own name after Warming’s on the book’s frontispiece, despite no changes to the contents<ref name="Goodland (1975)"/>.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/lehrbuchderkol00warm Lehrbuch der ökologischen Pflanzengeographie - Eine Einführung in die Kenntnis der Pflanzenvereine]; "Nach der neuesten Litteratur Vervollständigt bei Paul Graebner"; Berlin, Gebrüder Borntraeger.
This edition was expanded in third and fourth editions:
* Warming, E. & Graebner, P. (1918) ''Eug. Warming's Lehrbuch der ökologischen Pflanzengeographie'', 3 ed. Berlin, Gebrüder Borntrager. Fourth edn (1933) - 1158 pp.
A [[Polish language|Polish]] translation of ’Plantesamfund’ (from Knoblauch’s German translation) appeared in [[1900]]:
* Warming, E. (1900) ''Zbiorowiska Roślinne zarys ekologicznej geografii roślin'' by Edward Strumpf and Jósef Trzebiński. Warszawa, 1900. 451 pp.
Two independent [[Russian Empire|Russian]] ([[Moscow]] and [[St. Petersburg]]) editions appeared in [[1901]] and [[1903]]
* Вармингъ, Е. (1901) Ойкологическая географія растеній – Введеніе въ изученіе растительныхъ сообществъ by M. Golenkin and W. Arnol'di. Moskva, 542 pp. Full text link [http://www.abratsev.narod.ru/biblio/varming/varming.html]
* Вармингъ, Е. (1903) Распредъленіе растений въ зависимости отъ внъшнихъ условій - Экологическая географія растеній by A. G. Henkel' and with a treatise of the vegetation of Russia by G. I. Tanfil'ev. St. Petersburg, 474 pp.
An extended and translated edition in English first appeared in 1909:
* Warming, E. with M. Vahl (1909) [http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2811757 ''Oecology of Plants - an introduction to the study of plant-communities'']by P. Groom and [[Isaac Bayley Balfour|I. B. Balfour]]. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 422 pp. (2nd edn 1925).
The German ecologist [[Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper|A. F. W. Schimper]] published ”Pflanzengeographie auf physiologisher Grundlage” in 1898.
<blockquote>"This work not only covered much of the same ground as Warming did in 1895 and 1896 but in fact also leaned heavily on Warming’s research. Schimper (1898) quoted extensively from more than fifteen of Warming’s works and even reproduced Warming’s figures. Yet nowhere did Schimper acknowledge his profound debt to Warming, neither in the list of picture credits, nor in the acknowledgements section of the ''Vorwort'', nor in his list of major sources, and not even in a footnote! ... Although replete with Warming’s data, it contains few ideas and did not advance ecology beyond what Warming had done earlier.”<ref name="Goodland (1975)"/></blockquote>
==Warming as a teacher==
Warming was a skillful and dedicated pedagogue, whose presentation of the subject was useful far beyond his lecture theatre in [[Copenhagen]]. He wrote a number of [[botany]] textbooks for the university level, as well as school books.
===Handbook of systematic botany===
Warming's textbook on systematics for his lectures of [[botany]] in [[Copenhagen]] appeared in several editions and was translated to [[German language|German]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[English language|English]] and used in foreign universities.
*Warming, E. (1878) '''''Haandbog i den systematiske Botanik''' (nærmest til Brug for Universitets-Studerende og Lærere)''. København. (2nd edn 1884; 3rd ed with Algae by N. Wille and fungi by [[Emil Rostrup|E. Rostrup]] 1891).
German edn 1890: '''Handbuch der systematischen Botanik''' by E. Knoblauch (2nd edn 1902, 3rd edn 1911, 4th edn 1929 all by M. Möbius).
Russian edn 1893: '''Систематика растеній''' (from the 3rd Danish edn by S. Rostovzev and M. Golenkin; 2nd edn 1898).
English edn 1895: '''[http://www.archive.org/details/handbookofsystem00warm A handbook of systematic botany]''' (by M.C. Potter; several editions, latest 1932).
The section on seed plants was later expanded and issued as
* Warming Eug. (1912) ''Frøplanterne (Spermatofyter)'' [translated title: Seed Plants]. Kjøbenhavn, Gyldendalske Boghandel/Nordisk Forlag. 467 pp. (2nd edn 1933). The sections on spore plants were updated and published separately as
* [[Lauritz Kolderup Rosenvinge|Rosenvinge L. Kolderup]] (1913) Sporeplanterne (Kryptogamerne). Kjöbenhavn, Gyldendalske Boghandel/Nordisk Forlag. 388 pp.
===Handbook of general botany===
Warming's textbook on plant [[morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] was translated to [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[German language|German]]:
Warming Eug. '''''Den almindelige Botanik''': En Lærebog, nærmest til Brug for Studerende og Lærere'' [translated title: '''General Botany''']. Kjøbenhavn, 1880. (2rd edn 1886; 3rd edn by Warming and [[Wilhelm Johannsen]] 1895; 4th edn by Warming and [[Wilhelm Johannsen|Johannsen]] 1900-01).
Swedish edn 1882: ''Lärobok i allmän botanik'' (by Axel N. Lundström).
German edn 1907-09: ''Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Botanik'' (from the 4th edn, by E. P. Meinecke). Berlin, Borntraeger. 667 pp.
Also, Warming's schoolbook on [[botany]] was used abroad:
Warming Eug. (1900) '''''Plantelivet''': Lærebog i Botanik for Skoler og Seminarier'' [translated title: '''Plant Life''']. København. (2nd edn 1902; 3rd edn 1905; 4th and 5th edns by [[Christen C. Raunkiær|C. Raunkiær]] and Warming 1908 and 1914, respectively; 6th edn (1920) by E. Warming and [[Johannes Boye Petersen|Johs. Boye Petersen]]).
English edn 1911: ''Plant Life - A Text-book of Botany for Schools and Colleges'' (from the 4th edn by M.M. Rehling and E.M. Thomas). London.
Russian edn 1904: Растение и его жизнь (Началный учебник ботаники). (from the 2nd edn by L.M. Krečotovič and M. Golenkin). Moskva.
===Excursions===
Warming felt a strong need to take students of [[botany]] out of the lecture theatre. He used the [[Copenhagen Botanical Garden|botanic garden]] to demonstrate live plants, but to teach plant [[ecology]] he needed students to get out in nature. The action radius from [[Copenhagen]] offered by trips by foot was far to small, however. He applied to the [[Government of Denmark|government]] and obtained a grant to take students on longer excursions every year from 1893; every third year these went to western [[Jutland]], once to [[Bornholm]], otherwise to [[Zealand]]. His excursion notes were published and are instructive introductions to the environment and plant [[adaptation]] in [[dune]]s, [[salt marsh]]es and other [[habitat]]s:
*Warming, E. (1890) Botaniske Exkursioner 1. Fra Vesterhavskystens Marskegne. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjøbenhavn 1890.
*Warming, E. (1891) Botaniske Exkursioner 2. De psammophile Formationer i Danmark. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjøbenhavn 1891: 153-202.
*Warming, E. (1891) Botaniske Exkursioner 3. Skarridsø. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjøbenhavn 1891.
==Further scientific works of E. Warming==
[[Image:Warming,Eug1879.jpg|thumb|150px|Eugen Warming 1879]]
===Plant systematics===
His early experience with vegetation in a tropical region was decisive for his future work. His collections from [[Lagoa Santa]], 2600 plant species, of which some 370 turned out to be new to science<ref name="Goodland (1975)"/>, were treated in a monumental 40-volume and 1400-page work, '''''Symbolæ''' ad Floram Brasiliæ centralis cognoscendam''. For this work, Warming farmed out plant families to more than fifty plant taxonomists around Europe.
* Symbolæ ad Floram Brasiliæ centralis cognoscendam, particulæ 1-10, 1873
* Symbolæ 11-20, 1875
* Symbolæ 21-30, 1886
* Symbolæ 31-40, 1893
* Symbolæ 31-40, 1893. E.g. Particula XXXIX, [http://www.archive.org/details/enumeratiomyrtac00kiae Enumeratio Myrtacearum Brasiliensium] by Hjalmar Kiærskou.
They were all published as volumes in the series ’''Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjøbenhavn''’.
In addition, Warming treated the families [[Vochysiaceae]] and [[Trigoniaceae]] for the [[Flora Brasiliensis]]:
* [[Vochysiaceae]] et [[Trigoniaceae]]. [[Flora Brasiliensis]], [[August Wilhelm Eichler|Eichler, A.G.]] ed.: Vol. XIII, Part II, Fasc. 67, Column 16-116. [[Munich|Monachii]], 1875.
===His favourite plant family: [[Etudes sur la famille des Podostemacees]]===
Warming held a special interest in the family [[Podostemaceae]], with which he had become acquainted during his stay in [[Brasil]]. The plant species of this family are extremely modified by the harsh environment in which they live - they are [[angiosperms]] that have got the appearance of [[liverwort]]s.
*Warming, E. (1881-1899) '''''[[Etudes sur la famille des Podostemacees|Familien Podostemaceae]]''' - [[Etudes sur la famille des Podostemacees]]''.
Part I-V. Allpublished in [[Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab]]s Skrifter - Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling, 6. Rk.
===Lagoa Santa===
Having finished the taxonomical work, Warming finally published his ecological study of plant communities in the [[Lagoa Santa]] area, with [[cerrado]] as the main vegetation type.
* Warming, E. (1892) '''Lagoa Santa''': Et Bidrag til den biologiske Plantegeografi med en Fortegnelse over Lagoa Santas Hvirveldyr. ''Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter - Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling'', 6. Rk. vol. 6 (3): 153-488.
Warming issued a lengthy summary in French ([[1893]]): Lagoa Santa – Étude de Geographie Botanique. ''Revue Générale de Botanique'' 5: 145-158, 209-233.
Portuguese translation: Warming, Eugenio ''Lagoa Santa: Contribuição para a geographia phytobiologica'', by Alberto Löfgren Belo Horizonte, 1908.
This edition was augmented by the Brazilian ecologist M.G. Ferri with more recent research on the [[cerrado]] system and reissued as: Warming, E. & Ferri, M.G. (1973) ''Lagoa Santa – a vegetação de cerrados brasileiros''. University of São Paulo.
===Organogenetic studies===
Early on in Warming’s scientific career, the morphological-organogenetic point of was the leading principle in [[botany|botanical]] research, and he soon became one of the most prominent workers in this branch of [[botany]]. His main works from the early period are his thesis on floral development in [[Euphorbia]] and on [[Angiosperms|seed plant]] ovules.
Warming's doctoral thesis (in [[Danish language|Danish]]) dealt with ontogeny of the [[cyathium|cyathia]] of [[Euphorbia]] ([[Euphorbiaceae]]).
* Warming, J. Eug. B. 1871. ''Koppen hos Vortemælken en Blomst eller en Blomsterstand? En organogenetisk morfologisk Undersøgelse''. [[French language|French]] summary: Le cyathium de l"Euphorbia est-il une fleure ou une inflorescence? [[Copenhagen|Kjøbenhavn]], G.E.C. Gad.
Part of the work was published in [[German language|German]] the year before the thesis:
* Warming, E. 1870. ''Über die Entwicklung des Blütenstandes von Euphorbia''. Flora 53: 385-397.
His studies of [[pollen]] and [[anther]] formation i [[Angiosperms]] and on the inflorescence of [[Asteraceae]] were published in [[Johannes Ludwig Emil Robert von Hanstein|von Hanstein's]] ''Botanische Abhandlungen'':
*Warming, E. (1873) ''Untersuchungen über pollenbildende Phyllome und Kaulome''. Botanische Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiet der Morphologie und Physiologie, 2 (2): 1-90.
*Warming, E. (1876) ''Die Blüte der Kompositen''. Botanische Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Morphologie und Physiologie, 3 (2): 1-167.
His studies on [[Angiosperms|seed plant]] ovules were published in [[French language|French]] as
* Warming, E. 1878. ''De l’Ovule''. Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Botanique et Biologie Vegetale sér. 6: 177-266.
All these works a still cited in scientific papers by scholars of botany every now and then.[http://www.amjbot.org.ludwig.lub.lu.se/cgi/content/abstract/94/10/1612]
Trough the 1870s, Warming became much-influenced by [[Darwinism]]. The scope of his research changed. First towards understanding [[ontogenesis]] in the light of a common descent as seen in ''De l’Ovule'', later towards plant [[adaptation]] to environmental conditions. Again, his unparalleled ability to observe plants paired with his tropical experiencewas decisive to the route he chose.
===[[Plant life-form]]===
Although Warming did not coin the term ''life-form'' until 1895 (in [[Plantesamfund]] Ch. 2), he commenced work on [[plant life-form]] already during his [[Stockholm]] years. In the paper
* Warming, E. (1884) ''Om Skudbygning, Overvintring og Foryngelse'' [translated title: '''On shoot architecture, perennation and rejuvenation''']. Naturhistorisk Forenings Festskrift: 1-105. [[commons:Eugen Warming#Om Skudbygning, Overvintring og Foryngelse|Line drawings]],
he presented a classification based on longevity of the plant, power of [[vegetative propagation]], duration of tillers, [[hypogeous]] or [[epigeous]] type of shoots, mode of wintering, and degree and mode of branching of [[rhizome]]s. The observation were made while raising wild plants from seed under garden conditions. In the late 1880s, after Warming's return to [[University of Copenhagen|Copenhagen]], he swopped research topic with his student [[Christen C. Raunkiær|Christen Raunkiær]], who had traveled along the [[North Sea]] coast from [[Jutland]] to [[the Netherlands]] and published on the [[phytogeography]] of coastal [[vegetation]]<ref>[[Christen C. Raunkiær|Raunkiær, C.]] (1889) Notes on the vegetation of the North-Frisian Islands and a contribution to an eventual flora of these islands. [[Botanisk Tidsskrift]] 17, 179-196.</ref>. Warming now worked on plant [[adaptation]]s in [[dunes]] and [[salt marsh]]es, while [[Christen C. Raunkiær|Raunkiær]] studied the morphology of [[Denmark|Danish]] plants, eventually leading him to his [[Raunkiær plant life-form|plant life-form scheme]]<ref>[[Carl Christensen|Christensen, Carl]]: [[Christen C. Raunkiær|Christen Christiansen Raunkiær]], in: Dansk Biografisk Leksikon, 3rd edn 1979-1984 (ed. Svend Cedergreen Bech).</ref>. Nevertheless, after [[Christen C. Raunkiær|Raunkiær]] had published his [[Raunkiær plant life-form|life-form scheme]], Warming return to this topic in the work
*Warming, E. (1908) ''Om planterigets livsformer'' [translated title: '''On the life forms in the vegetable kingdom''']. G.E.C. Gad, København.
Warming’s new scheme was less simple than [[Raunkiær plant life-form|Raunkiær's]], taking other environmental factors than wintering into account, especially water/drought stress. Warming did not approve of what he saw as over-simplification in the [[Raunkiær plant life-form|Raunkiær scheme]].
Warmings last published work was a renewed attempt to put all plant (including bacteria and algae) life forms into a system.
* Warming, E. (1923) ''Økologiens Grundformer – Udkast til en systematisk Ordning'' [translated title: '''Fundamental ecological forms - draft for a system''']. [[Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab]]s Skrifter - Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling, 8. Rk., vol. 4: 120-187.
===[[Greenland]], [[Iceland]] and [[Faroe Islands]]===
Warmings published a number of treatises based on his expedition to Southwest [[Greenland]] in 1884. On of the most important ones is his observations of the [[vegetation]] of [[Greenland]] and the history of the flora:
*Warming, E. (1887) Om Grønlands Vegetation [translated title: On the vegetation of Greenland]. [[Meddelelser om Grønland]] 12: 1-223. A summary was published as:
*Warming, E. (1888) Über Grönlands Vegetation. Englers Botanische Jahrbücher, 10. Following the publication of this paper, Warming entered a dispute with [[Alfred Gabriel Nathorst|A.G. Nathorst]] over the history of the [[flora of Greenland]].
Warming's collections of leaves, stems and flowers, made during the brief expedition, were examined in detail and the [[anatomy]] of a number of species described in a series of papers in [[Danish language|Danish]]. Later, Warming distributed the material family-wise, now ameliorated with collectections made later expeditions and elsewhere in the [[Arctic]], to students, who made further investigations and published the results in [[English language|English]]:
Warming, E. ed. (1908-1921) '''[[The structure and biology of Arctic flowering plants]]'''. [[Meddelelser om Grønland]] vol. 36: 1-481 and 37: 1-507.
*Warming, E. ed. (1901-1908) '''[[Botany of the Faeroes|Botany of the Færöes]] - based upon Danish investigations''', vol. I-III. Copenhagen and London.
*[[Lauritz Kolderup Rosenvinge|Rosenvinge, L. Kolderup]] & Warning, E. (eds) (1912-1932) '''[[The Botany of Iceland]]''', vol. 1-3. Copenhagen, J. Frimodt. Continued in vols 4-5 edited by [[Johannes Grøntved]], [[Ove Paulsen]] and [[Thorvald Sørensen]]. Full text of Vol. 1 ([http://www.archive.org/details/botanyoficeland0101kold part 1] and [http://www.openlibrary.org/details/botanyoficeland0102kold part 2]) and Vol. 2 ([http://www.openlibrary.org/details/botanyoficeland0201kold part 1]).
===Vegetation of Denmark===
* Warming, E. 1904. Bidrag til Vadernes, Sandenes og Marskens Naturhistorie (with contributions of [[Carl Wesenberg-Lund|C. Wesenberg-Lund]], [[Ernst Østrup|E. Østrup]] &c). [[Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab]]s Skrifter - Naturvidenskabelig og Mathematisk Afdeling, 7. Rk., 2: 1-56.
* Warming, E. 1906. Dansk Plantevækst. 1. Strandvegetationen. - Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag. [beach vegetation]
* Warming, E. 1909. Dansk Plantevækst. 2. Klitterne. - Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag. [dunes]
* Warming, E. 1917. Dansk Plantevækst. 3. Skovene. - Gyldendalske Boghandel Nordisk Forlag. [forests]
==Warming’s influence==
<blockquote>''It was Eugenius Warming's Lehrbuch der ökologischen Pflanzengeographie that must be considered as the starting point of self-conscious ecology. This book was the first to use physiological relations between plants and their environment, and in addition biotic interactions to explain the moulding of the assemblages that plant geographers had described and classified, and it would set up a research agenda for decades to come''.<ref name="Jax (2001)">[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0003084 Jax, Kurt (2001) History of Ecology. In: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons.]</ref></blockquote>
Despite the language barrier, Warming’s influence on the development of ecology is remarkable, not the least in Britain and the USA. The British ecologist [[Arthur Tansley]] was extremely influenced by reading ’Plantesamfund’ (or rather the 1896 German edition). Reading the book made him jump from anatomy to ecology<ref name="Goodland (1975)"/>. [[Arthur Tansley|Tansley]] used the book as textbook in a university course as early as 1899<ref name="Tansley (1947)>[http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2256503 Tansley, A.G. (1947) The early history of modern plant ecology in Britain. ''Journal of Ecology'', 35, 130-137.] [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0477%28194712%2935%3A1%2F2%3C130%3ATEHOMP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I]</ref>. Similarly, Warming's book was decisive in forming the careers of North American naturalists like [[Henry Chandler Cowles]]<ref name="Coleman (1986)">Coleman, W. (1986) Evolution into ecology? The strategy of Warming’s ecological plant geography. ''Journal of the History of Biology'', 19(2), 181-196.</ref>. Cowles' now classic studies of [[Lake Michigan]] [[sand dune]] plant communities were directly inspired by Warming's studies of [[Denmark|Danish]] dunes<ref name="Cassidy (2007)">Cassidy, V.M. (2007) ''Henry Chandler Cowles – pioneer ecologist''. Kedzie Sigel Press, Chicago. [http://www.sigelpress.com/index.asp?PageAction=VIEWPROD&ProdID=7]</ref>. Also [[Frederic Clements]] was much inspired by Warming when starting to working with [[ecological succession|succession]], but more by [[Carl Georg Oscar Drude|Oscar Drude]] in formulating his concept of vegetational climax in his [[1916]] book.
A more unexpected avenue of influence went through the [[U.S.A.|American]] [[sociology|sociologist]] [[Robert E. Park]], who read Warming's ''[[Plantesamfund|Oecology of Plants]]'' and used the ideas of [[ecological succession]] as inspiration for a notion of ''succession'' in human communities - a [[human ecology]]<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-9602%28199601%29101%3A4%3C874%3AEMASBW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 Gaziano, Emanuel (1996) Ecological Metaphors as Scientific Boundary Work: Innovation and Authority in Interwar Sociology and Biology. The American Journal of Sociology 101 (4): 874-907.]</ref>.
Warming’s influence on later Scandinavian ecology was immense. Especially significant was his inspiration to [[C. Raunkiær|Christen Raunkiær]] – his pupil and successor on the chair of botany at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. In addition, he had a direct influence of Danish research, scientific and other, for a couple of decades. After his appointment to the professorship in [[University of Copenhagen|Copenhagen]], he gradually took over [[Japetus Steenstrup]]s power base, most notably as one of three members of the board of the [[Carlsberg Foundation]] for 32 years. Thus, Warming had the upper hand in whom should be granted money and whom should not.
==Warming and evolution==
Warming was a firm believer in adaptation. However, he was a declared [[Lamarckism|Lamarckist]]. In his popularizing book ''Nedstamningslæren'' (The theory of decendence; 1915)<ref name="Nedstamningslaeren">Warming, E. (1915) Nedstamningslæren. Copenhagen, Udvalget til Folkeoplysnings Fremme, G.E.C. Gad.</ref>, he reviewed the direct and indirect evidence for common decent of living organisms and for [[Charles Darwin|Darwinian]] natural selection as a process involved in [[speciation]]. His keen observations of how differently the same plant is grown under different circumstances (now known as [[phenotypic plasticity]]) led him to question the change of species by infinitesimally small steps as advocated by his contemporary [[Darwinism|Darwinists]] of the [[Biostatistics#Biostatistics and the history of biological thought|Biometry school]], e.g. [[Karl Pearson]]. Warming summarized his view on the ways in which new species could may arise: 1) By [[inheritance of acquired characters]]; 2) By [[Hybrid (biology)#Hybrid plants|hybridization]]; 3) By [[natural selection]], with the latter mechanism being the least important.
==Warming, religion and politics==
Warming was raised in a Christian [[Protestant]] home and he continued to be religious throughout his life. He accepted the evolution by descent of living beings, but believed that laws governing planets’ orbits and other laws governing organic evolution were God-given. In his popular book ''Nedstamningslæren'' (translated title: Evolution by descent), he concludes the section on hypotheses about the origin of life writing that, no matter what hypothesis is considered, it just “defers the grand question: how did life first come into existence, »in the beginning«? … as if we human beings thereby obtained understanding and explanation for anything at all, or circumvented the almighty power that, incomprehensibly to our mind, must have created matter, force, time and infinite space. Science has not disproven the [[Bible]] that says: »[[Book of Genesis|In the beginning God created …]]«!”<ref name="Nedstamningslaeren"/>. Warming shared this view with many prominent contemporary naturalists, e.g. [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]<ref>[[Alfred Russel Wallace|Wallace, A.R.]] (1914) The world of life : a manifestation of creative power, directive mind and ultimate purpose. London, Chapman and Hall; p. 386: "The remote but more fundamental cause, which has been comparatively little attended to, is the existence of a special group of elements possessing such exceptional and altogether extraordinary properties as to render possible the existence of vegetable and animal life-forms. ... the Mind which first caused these elements to exist, and then built them up into such marvellous living, moving, self-supporting, and self-reproducing structures, ..." [http://www.archive.org/details/worldoflifemanif00walliala]</ref>.
Politically, Warming was national-conservative, [[Scandinavism|Scandinavist]] and anti-[[Prussia]]n. Warming was able to visit his birth place only a few times in his life because [[Schleswig]] was conquered by [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] in [[1864]] and ([[Northern Schleswig]]) returned to [[Denmark]] in [[1920]]. Warming expressed support, in letters<ref name="Prytz (1984)"/>, for France in the [[1870]] [[Franco-Prussian War]]. He made financial contributions to a secret fund that should support Danish-minded [[Schleswig]]ian farmers in buying farms and prevent [[Germanization]] of [[Northern Schleswig]]. In a letter of 1898 to his son Jens, he regrets that the [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Højre]] – the conservative party – would lose an upcoming election and expresses concern that ''anarchy and socialism'' will eventually rule<ref>Prytz (1984) p. 117.</ref>.
==Miscellaneous==
The Orchid genus [[Warmingia]] [[Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach|Rchb.f.]] and dozens of species ([http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_family=&find_genus=&find_species=warming*&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_includePublicationAuthors=on&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=on&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch IPNI]) has been named to his honour. Also [[Warming Land]] - a [[peninsula]] in northernmost [[Greenland]].
[[Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais]] has organized a series of 'Eugen Warming lectures in Evolutionary Ecology' since 1994.
==Biographies and obituaries==
* [[Christen C. Raunkiær|Raunkiær, C.]] (1904) Biography in [http://runeberg.org/dbl/18/0266.html Dansk Biografisk Lexikon, vol. XVIII]
* [[Ignatz Urban|Urban, Ignatius]] (1906) [http://www.botanicus.org/page/309675 Vitae for Warming in Flora Brasiliensis, enumeratio plantarum in Brasilia hactenus detectarum :quas suis aliorumque botanicorum studiis descriptas et methodo naturali digestas partim icone illustratas /ediderunt Carolus Fridericus Philippus de Martius et Augustus Guilielmus Eichler ; iisque defunctis successor Ignatius Urban; Fasc. CXXX (ultimus) - VITAE ITINERAQUE COLLECTORUM BOTANICORUM Etc.]
* Obituary in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 113, 683-684 (1924) by William G. Smith
* Obituaries in ''[[Botanisk Tidsskrift]]'', 39 (1924):
**[[Lauritz Kolderup Rosenvinge|L. K. Rosenvinge]]: ''Eug. Warming og Dansk Botanisk Forening'', pp. 1-6
**[[Carl Christensen]]: ''Eug. Warming, en Levnedsbeskrivelse'', pp. 7-30
**[[Carl Hansen Ostenfeld|C. H. Ostenfeld]]: ''Warmings almindelige botaniske Virksomhed'', pp. 31-38
**A. Mentz: ''Warming som plantegeografisk Forsker'', pp. 39-44
**[[Charles Flahault]], O. Juel, [[Carl Schroeter|C. Schröter]] and [[Arthur Tansley|A.G. Tansley]]: ''Eug. Warming in memoriam'', pp. 45-56.
* [[Carl Christensen|Christensen, C.]] (1924-26) ''Den danske botaniks historie, med tilhørende bibliografi. I. Den danske botaniks historie fra de ældste tider til 1912. II. Bibliografi''.
* [[Carl Christensen|Christensen, C.]] (1932) ''Eugenius Warming'', pp. 156-160 in: Meisen, V. Prominent Danish Scientists through the Ages. University Library of Copenhagen 450th Anniversary. Levin & Munksgaard, Copenhagen.
* Müller, D. (1980) ''Warming, Johannes Eugenius Bülow''. In: Gillespie, C.G. (ed.) [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]], vol. 16. New York, NY: Charles Scribner and Sons. ISBN 0684101149
* Klein, Aldo Luiz (2000) ''[http://www.editoraunesp.com.br/titulo_view.asp?IDT=581Eugen Warming e o cerrado brasileiro um século depois]''. São Paulo, UNESP. 156 pp. ISBN 8571393540
==External links==
{{Commons|Eugen Warming}}
*[[commons:Eugen Warming]]'', Wikimedia Commons: "Om Skudbygning, Overvintring og Foryngelse"
*[http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/chronob/WARM1841.htm Biographical sketch]
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9076119/Warming,%20Johannes%20Eugenius%20Bulow Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Warming]
==References==
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