Fall of Constantinople 102674 224648944 2008-07-09T20:24:42Z Brando130 3081483 over redirect {{Warbox |conflict=Siege of Constantinople |partof=the [[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] |image=[[Image:Siege of Constantinople.jpg|300px]] |caption=The Siege of Constantinople (painted 1499). |date=[[April 2]]&ndash;[[May 29]], [[1453]] |place=[[Constantinople]] (present-day [[Istanbul]]) |result=Decisive<ref> *http://www.geocities.com/Paris/5972/Constantinople.html *http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/vasilief/constantine-xi-capture-of-constantinople.asp *http://www.amazon.ca/Battles-That-Changed-History-Decisive/dp/1842223828 *http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/general-secretary/visits/archbishop-christodoulos/29-05-06-archbishop-christodoulos-meditation-at-wcc.html</ref> Ottoman victory, end of the Byzantine Empire. |combatant1={{flag|Byzantine Empire}} |combatant2={{flagicon|Ottoman Empire|1383}} [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultanate]] |commander1=[[Constantine XI]] †,<BR>[[Loukas Notaras]],<BR>[[Giovanni Giustiniani]] †<ref name="Pertusi"/> |commander2=[[Mehmed II]],<BR>[[Zağanos Pasha]] |strength1= 7,000<ref>Sir Steven Runciman - ''The Fall of Constantinople''</ref><br>26 ships<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;45.</ref> |strength2= 80,000<ref>{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=}}</ref>-200,000<ref name="Pertusi"/><ref>''The Destruction of the Greek Empire,'' Edwin Pears</ref><br>126 ships<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;44.</ref> |casualties1=4,000 dead<ref>Phrantzes, ''The Fall of the Byzantine Empire''</ref> |casualties2=unknown but heavy <ref>The fall of Constantinople: the Ottoman conquest of Byzantium David Nicolle pg.231</ref> |notes= }} {{Campaignbox Byzantine-Ottoman Wars}} {{for|earlier attacks on Constantinople|Sieges of Constantinople}} The '''Fall of Constantinople''' refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the [[Ottoman Empire]] on Tuesday, [[May 29]], [[1453]] (Julian Calendar). The event marked the end of the political independence of the millennium-old [[Byzantine Empire]], which was by then already fragmented into several [[Greeks|Greek]] monarchies.<ref name=runciman>The Fall of Constantinople 1453 - Steven Runciman</ref> Most importantly, the fall of [[Constantinople]] accelerated the scholarly exodus of [[Byzantine Greeks]] which caused the influx of [[Classical Studies|Classical Greek Studies]] into the [[European Renaissance]].<ref>A direct causal connection between the fall of the city and the exodus of Greek scholars to the West is often made; see for example [http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/renaiss.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Renaissance]. On the other hand, Runciman (1965) is careful not to overestimate the role which the fall of Constantinople in 1453 played in the emigration of scholars to Western Europe, which he emphasizes had already been underway for more than 50 years as a result of the decline of the empire by the time the city fell. (See Runciman (1965), p. xi, p. 188.) The role of non-scholarly Greeks in transferring the knowledge of ancient Greek literature is stressed by J. Harris ([http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/late/laterbyz/harris-ren.html On-line Reference Book for Medieval Studies]).</ref> In addition, it played a crucial role in Ottoman political stability and its subsequent expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean and the [[Balkans]]. The date of the event is one of the frequently [[Middle Ages#Periodisation issues|proposed events]] marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] as a historical period. ==State of the Byzantine Empire== In the approximately 1,100 years of the existence of the [[Byzantine Empire]], Constantinople had been besieged many times but had been captured only once, during the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204.<ref name="Norwich304">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 304}}</ref> The crusaders had most likely not intended to conquer Byzantium from the beginning, and an unstable [[Latin Empire|Latin state]] was established in Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire fell apart into a number of Greek successor states, notably [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]], [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] and [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]]. The Greek states fought as allies against the Latin establishments but also as rivals against each other over the Byzantine throne. The Nicaean Greeks were the first to re-conquer Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. In the following two centuries, the much-weakened Byzantine Empire was facing attacks from the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians and most importantly, the Ottoman Turks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Madden|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Madden|title=Crusades: The Illustrated History|location=Ann Arbor|publisher= University of Michigan|year=2005|pages= }}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|last=Haldon|first=John|title=Byzantium at War 600 - 1453|location=New York|publisher= Osprey|year=2000|pages= }}</ref> <ref>{{cite book|last=Mango|first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Oxford UP|year=2002|pages= }}</ref> In 1453 the empire consisted of little more than the city of Constantinople itself and a portion of the [[Peloponnese]] (centered on the fortress of [[Mystras]]). The [[Empire of Trebizond]], a completely independent [[successor state]] formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade also survived on the coast of the [[Black Sea]]. ==Preparations== [[Image:Eastern Mediterranean 1450 .svg|thumb|250px|right|The Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 15th century. Thessaloniki was captured by the Ottomans in 1430. A few islands in the Aegean and the [[Propontis]] remained under Byzantine rule until 1453 (not shown on the map)]] When Sultan [[Murad II]] was succeeded by his son [[Mehmed II]] in early [[1451]], it was widely believed that the new Sultan would turn out to be an incapable ruler who could pose no great threat to Christian possessions in the Balkans and the Aegean.<ref>Runciman 1965, p. 60</ref> This belief was reinforced by Mehmed's friendly assurances to envoys that were sent to him at the assumption of his reign.<ref name="Norwich373">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 373}}</ref> His promise to respect Byzantine territorial integrity, however, soon proved false. During the spring and summer of [[1452]], Mehmed II, whose great grandfather [[Bayezid I]] had previously built a [[fortress]] on the [[Asia]]n side of the [[Bosporus]] called [[Anadoluhisari|''Anadolu Hisarı'']], now built a second fortress outside the walls of Constantinople on the [[Europe]]an side, which would increase Turkish influence on the straits.<ref name="Norwich373"/> An especially relevant aspect of this fortress was its ability to prevent help from [[Genoa|Genoese]] colonies on the [[Black Sea]] coast from reaching the city. This castle was called [[Rumelihisari|''Rumeli Hisarı'']]; [[Rumelia|''Rumeli'']] and [[Anatolia|''Anadolu'']] being the names of [[Europe]]an and [[Asia]]n portions of the Ottoman Empire, respectively. The new fortress is also known as ''Boğazkesen'' which has a dual meaning in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]; strait-blocker or throat-cutter, emphasizing its strategic position. The [[Greek language|Greek]] name of the fortress, ''Laimokopia'', also bears the same double-meaning. Byzantine emperor [[Constantine XI]] appealed to Western Europe for help, but his request did not meet the expected attention. Ever since the [[East-West Schism|mutual excommunication]] of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] and [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] churches in 1054, the Roman Catholic West had been trying to re-integrate the East; union had been attempted before at [[Second Council of Lyons|Lyons]] in 1274 and, indeed, some Paleologan emperors had been received in the Latin Church since. Emperor [[John VIII Palaeologus]] had attempted to negotiate Union with [[Pope Eugene IV]], and the [[Council of Basel#Eugenius IV|Council]] held in 1439 resulted in the proclamation, in [[Florence]], of a ''Bull of Union''. In the following years, a massive propaganda initiative was undertaken by anti-unionist forces in Constantinople and the population as well as the leadership of the Byzantine Church was in fact bitterly divided. Latent [[ethnic hatred]] between Greeks and Italians stemming from the events of 1204 and the [[Fourth Crusade|sack of Constantinople]] by the Latins, also played a significant role, and finally the Union failed, greatly annoying [[Pope Nicholas V]] and the Roman Catholic Church. [[Image:Constantinople.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of Constantinople and its [[Theodosian Walls|land walls]]]] In the summer of 1452, when Rumeli Hisari was completed and the threat had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the Union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on Tuesday 12 December 1452.<ref name="Norwich373"/> Although he was eager to help, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western Kings and Princes, and these had not the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of [[France]] and [[England]] being weakened from the [[Hundred Years' War]], [[Spain]] being in the final part of the [[Reconquista]], the internecine fighting in the [[Holy Roman Empire|German Principalities]], and [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]]'s defeat at the [[Battle of Varna]] of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city out of their own account; one of them was an accomplished soldier from Genoa, [[Giovanni Giustiniani]], who arrived with 700 armed men in January 1453.<ref>Runciman 1965, pp. 83-84</ref> A specialist in defending walled cities, he was immediately given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships which happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.<ref>Runciman 1965, p. 81</ref> In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet, but there were delays, and when it finally set out late in April, it was already too late for it to be able to partake in the battle.<ref>Runciman 1965, p. 85.</ref> Undermining Byzantine morale further, 7 Italian ships with around 700 men slipped out of the capital at the same moment when Giovanni arrived, men who had sworn to defend the capital. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended in the execution of the former's ambassadors - even Byzantine diplomacy could not save the city.<ref name="Norwich373"/> ===Odds=== The army defending Constantinople was small; it totalled about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.<ref>According to Phrantzes, whom Constantine had ordered to make a census, the Emperor was appalled when the number of native men capable of bearing arms turned out to be only 4,983. Leonardo di Chio gave a number of 6,000 Greeks. See Runciman 1965, p. 85.</ref> The city had about 20 km of walls ([[Theodosian Walls]]: 5.5 km; sea walls along the [[Golden Horn]]: 7 km; sea walls along the [[Sea of Marmara]]: 7.5 km), probably the strongest set of fortified walls in existence at the time. The walls had recently been repaired (under [[John VIII Palaeologus|John VIII]]) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived.<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;39.</ref> In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped. The defenders also had a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Spain, 1 from France, and about 10 Byzantine.<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;45.</ref> The Ottomans, on the other hand, had a larger force. It was thought to number around 100,000 men, including 20,000 [[Janissary|Janissaries]]; recent estimates span between 80,000 soldiers and 5,000 [[Janissary|Janissaries]],<ref>Nicolle 2000.</ref> and 150,000 soldiers, including mounted troops and 6,000-10,000 [[Janissary|Janissaries]].<ref name="Pertusi">{{cite book|last = Pertusi|first = Agostino, ed.|year = 1976|title = La Caduta di Costantinopoli|publisher = Fondazione Lorenzo Valla: Verona. (An anthology of contemporary texts and documents on the fall of Constantinople; includes bibliographies and a detailed scholarly comment)}}</ref> Contemporary witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide higher numbers<ref name="Pertusi"/> (Nicolò Barbaro: 160,000;<ref name=Barbaro>Nicolò Barbaro, ''Giornale dell'Assedio di Costantinopoli'', 1453. The autograph copy is conserved in the [[Biblioteca Marciana]] in Venice. Barbaro's diary has been translated into English by John Melville-Jones (New York:Exposition Press, 1969), part of which is available [http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/constantinople3.htm here].</ref> the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi<ref name=Tedaldi>Concasty, M.-L., ''Les «Informations» de Jacques Tedaldi sur le siège et la prise de Constantinople''</ref> and the Great Logothete [[George Sphrantzes]]:<ref name=Sphrantzes>''Chronicles'' of George Sphrantzes; Greek text is reported in A. Mai, ''Classicorum auctorum e Vaticanis codicibus editorum'', tome IX, Romae 1837, pp 1-100</ref> 200,000; the Cardinal [[Isidore of Kiev]]<ref name=Isidoro>''Epistola reverendissimi patris domini Isidori cardinalis Ruteni scripta ad reverendissimum dominum Bisarionem episcopum Tusculanum ac cardinalem Nicenum Bononiaeque legatum'' (letter of Cardinal Isidore to Cardinal [[Johannes Bessarion]]), dated 6 July 1453</ref> and the Archbishop of [[Lesbos Island|Mytilene]] Leonardo di Chio:<ref name=LeonardoChio>Leonardo di Chio, ''Letter to [[Pope Nicholas V]]'', dated 16 August 1453 (edited in Migne, ''[[Patrologia Graeca]]'' 159, 923A-944B).</ref> 300,000).<ref>Leonardo di Chio, ''Letter'', 927B: "three hundred thousand and more".</ref> Mehmed also built a fleet to besiege the city from the sea (partially manned by Greek sailors from Gallipoli<ref>Nicolle 2000.</ref>). Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span between about 100 ships (Tedaldi<ref name=Tedaldi/>), 145 (Barbaro<ref name=Barbaro/>), 160 (Ubertino Pusculo<ref name=Pusculo>Ubertino Pusculo, ''Constantinopolis'', 1464</ref>), 200-250 (Isidore of Kiev,<ref name=Isidoro/> Leonardo di Chio<ref>Leonardo di Chio, ''Letter'', 930C.</ref>) to 430 (Sphrantzes<ref name=Sphrantzes/>). A more realistic modern estimate puts the total at 6 large galleys, 10 ordinary galleys, 15 smaller galleys, 75 large rowing boats, and 20 horse-transports.<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;44.</ref> According to Nicolle (2000), the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is wrong, and the overall situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.<ref>Nicolle 2000, p.&nbsp;40.</ref> ===Equipment and strategies=== ==== Ottoman dispositions ==== Prior to the siege of Constantinople it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized cannon, but the range of some pieces they were able to put to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations. Instrumental to this Ottoman advancement in arms production was a somewhat mysterious figure by the name of [[Orban]], a Hungarian (though some suggest he was German)<ref name="Norwich374">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 374}}</ref>. The master founder initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, who were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. He then offered his skills to the sultan. He guaranteed Mehmed that he could cast cannons powerful enough to break down the "walls of Babylon", implying that the greatest fortifications could not be spared.<ref name="Norwich374"/> Consequently every resource was placed at his fingertips. In a move of unprecedented technicality, working in a makeshift foundry, Orban pushed the limits of his art and cast what was probably the largest contemporary gun yet made — 27 feet long and large enough for a full grown man to crawl into. Orban's cannon could fire a 1200 lb (544 kg) ball as far as one mile. It was dubbed "the [[Great Turkish Bombard]]". Orban's cannon had several drawbacks, however: it took three hours to reload; the cannon balls were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks (this fact however is disputed,<ref name="Pertusi"/> being only reported in the letter of Archbishop Leonardo di Chio<ref name=LeonardoChio/> and the later and often unreliable Russian chronicle of [[Nestor Iskander]]). Orban's accomplishments in dealing with such fine tolerances on such a massive scale place his work as one of the greatest engineering feats of the time yet nothing is certainly known about his demise<ref>Another expert who was employed by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] was [[Ciriaco Pizzecolli|Ciriaco dei Pizzicolli]], also known as Ciriaco of [[Ancona]], traveller and collector of antiquities.</ref>. Having previously established a large foundry approximately 150 miles away, Mehmed now had to undergo the painstaking process of transporting his massive pieces of artillery. Orban's giant cannon was said to have been accompanied by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.<ref name="Norwich374"/> [[Image:Edirne Kusatma Zonaro.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Mehmed II leading the Ottoman army as it marches from [[Edirne]] to start the siege of Constantinople, transporting the [[Great Turkish Bombard]]]] Mehmed planned to attack the [[Theodosian Walls]], the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West, the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on the Monday after Easter, [[2 April]] [[1453]]. The bulk of the Ottoman army were encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from [[Anatolia]] under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmara. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the ''Mesoteichion'', where the guns and the elite regiments, the [[Janissaries]], were positioned. The [[Bashi-bazouks]] were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under [[Zaganos Pasha]] were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been constructed over the marshy head of the Horn.<ref>Runciman 1965, pp. 94-95.</ref> ==== Byzantine dispositions ==== On [[April 5]], as the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, the defenders took up their positions.<ref>The following information is taken from Runciman (1965), pp. 92-94.</ref> As their numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the ''Mesoteichion'', the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of Charisius|Charisian Gate]] (''Myriandrion''); later during the siege, he was shifted to the ''Mesoteichion'' to join Constantine, leaving the ''Myriandrion'' to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the [[Blachernae]] palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and Archbishop Leonardo of Chios. To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, with Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the [[Walls of Constantinople#Gate of the Spring|Pegae Gate]] with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a certain Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall. The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at [[Stoudion]], a makeshift defense force of Greek monks to his left hand, and prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherius. Péré Julia was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese troops; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. The sea walls at the southern shore of the [[Golden Horn]] were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano. Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city, one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], under the command of [[Lucas Notaras]] and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Genoese Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbour. Although the Byzantines also had cannons, they were much smaller than those of the Ottomans and the [[recoil]] tended to damage their own walls.<ref name=LeonardoChio/> ==Siege of the city== [[Image:Siege constantinople bnf fr2691.jpg|thumb|left|Siege of Constantinople]] At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmora were taken within a few days. The [[Princes' Islands]] in the Sea of Marmora were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu's fleet<ref>Runciman 1965, pp. 96-97.</ref>. Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, limiting the cannon's effect.<ref name="Norwich376">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 376}}</ref> <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ships Over Land.jpg|thumb|right|Transporting ships on land overnight]] --> Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under [[Suleiman Baltoghlu]] could not enter the [[Golden Horn]] due to the [[wikt:boom|boom]] the Byzantines had laid across the entrance, and although one of its main tasks was to prevent any ships from outside from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April a small flotilla of four Christian ships<ref>These were the three Genoese ships sent by the Pope, joined by a large Imperial transport ship which had been sent on a foraging mission to Sicily previous to the siege and was on its way back to Constantinople. (Runciman 1965, p. 100)</ref> managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan.<ref name="Norwich376"/> Baltoghlu's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his brave yet fruitless efforts to Mehmed. To circumvent the boom, Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across [[Galata]] on the north side of the Golden Horn, and rolled his ships across on 22 April.<ref name="Norwich376"/> This seriously threatened the flow of supplies from [[Genoa|Genovese]] ships from the - nominally neutral - colony of [[Beyoğlu|Pera]] and demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using [[fire ships]], but the Ottomans had been warned in advance and forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. From then on, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to the Golden Horn walls, causing defense in other sections of the walls to weaken. The Turks had made several frontal assaults on the land wall, but were always repelled with heavy losses. From mid-May to 25 May, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing underground tunnels in an effort to [[Mining (military)|mine]] them. Many of the sappers were [[Serbia]]ns sent from [[Novo Brdo]] by the [[Serbia]]n [[Despot]]. They were placed under the rule of [[Zaganos Pasha]]. However, the Byzantines employed an engineer named [[Johannes Grant]] (who was said to be German but was probably Scottish), who had countermines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the Turkish workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first Serbian tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunneling efforts were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, destroying them with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were then destroyed<ref> Crowley, Roger. ''1453: the holy war for Constantinople and the clash of Islam and the West.'' New York: Hyperion, 2005. p 168-171 ISBN 1-4013-0850-3</ref>. Mehmed offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. When this was declined, Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force, knowing that the weak Byzantine defense would be worn out before he ran out of troops. Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran [[Çandarlı (2nd) Halil Pasha|Halil Pasha]], who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Halil was overruled by Zaganos Pasha, who insisted on an immediate attack, an advice which the Sultan was glad to follow. Suspected of having been bribed by the Byzantines, Halil Pasha was put to death later that year.<ref>Runciman 1965, pp. 126-128, 169-170.</ref> On [[May 22]], 1453, the moon, symbol of Constantinople, rose in dark [[eclipse]], fulfilling a prophecy on the city's demise<ref>{{cite book |last=Guillermier|first=Pierre|authorlink=|coauthors=Serge Koutchmy|title=Total Eclipses: Science, Observations, Myths, and Legends |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1F_zSwe9iU4C|accessdate=2008-02-27|year=1999|publisher=Springer |isbn=1852331607|pages=p. 85}}</ref>. Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the [[Hagia Sophia]], and from the city walls lights were seen in the countryside to the West, far behind the Turkish camp. The light around the dome was interpreted by some as the [[Holy Spirit]] departing from the Cathedral, while there was a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of [[John Hunyadi]] who had come to relieve the city.<ref>It is possible that all these phenomena were local effects of the cataclysmic [[Kuwae]] volcanic eruption in the Pacific Ocean. The "fire" seen may have been an optical illusion due to the reflection of intensely red twilight glow by clouds of volcanic ash high in the atmosphere.[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/93/release_1993_1543.html Source at NASA]</ref> The following day a small Venetian ship of 12 entered the Capital and reported to the Emperor that no Venetian relief fleet was on its way after having searched the Aegean.<ref>{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 377}}</ref> Nonetheless the Emperor was able to receive the aid of the 12 in the defense of the city. ===Final assault=== Mehmed called a war council on 26 May and at his tent declared that the siege had gone on long enough. Preparations were to be made in the evening and continue on into the next day on the 27th.<ref name="Norwich 378"/> Prayer and resting would be then granted to the soldiers on the 28th and thereafter the final assault would be launched. For 36 hours after the war council the Ottomans mobilized their manpower for extensive preparations for an all-out assault.<ref name="Norwich 378">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 378}}</ref> Prior to this the Ottomans had tried to starve the city and make notable breaches in the walls with artillery, occasionally testing the sea walls with his land-hauled fleet. [[Image:Encouraging the Fleet.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Mehmed II]] encourages the fleet during the siege of Constantinople]] On May 28, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large-scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening a last solemn ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor and representatives of both the Latin and Greek church partook, together with nobility from both sides.<ref>Vasiliev 1952, pp. 651-652</ref> Shortly after midnight the attack began. The first wave of attackers, the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire#Conscription|azab]]s (auxiliaries), were poorly trained and equipped, and were meant only to kill as many defenders as possible. The second assault, consisting largely of [[Anatolia]]ns, focused on a section of the [[Blachernae]] walls in the northwest part of the city, which had been partially damaged by the cannon. This section of the walls had been built much more recently, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker; the crusaders in 1204 had broken through the walls there. The Ottoman attackers also managed to break through, but were just as quickly pushed back out by the defenders. The Christians also managed for a time to hold off the third attack by the Sultan's elite [[Janissary|Janissaries]], but the Genoese general in charge of the land troops,<ref name="Pertusi"/><ref name=LeonardoChio/><ref name=Isidoro/> [[Giovanni Giustiniani]], was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.<ref>Sources hostile towards the Genoese (such as the Venetian Nicolò Barbaro), however, report that Giustiniani was only lightly wounded or not wounded at all, but, overwhelmed by fear, simulated the wound to abandon the battlefield, determining the fall of the city. These charges of cowardice and treason were so widespread that the [[Republic of Genoa]] had to deny them by sending diplomatic letters to the Chancelleries of England, France, the Duchy of Burgundy and others. See C. Desimoni, ''Adamo di Montaldo'', in Atti della Società Ligure di Storia Patria, X, 1874, pp. 296-7.</ref> Giustiniani was carried to [[Chios]], where he succumbed to his wounds a few days later. With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbour, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, kept fighting and managed to hold off the attackers for a while. At this point, some historians suggest that the [[Kerkoporta]] gate in the [[Blachernae]] section had been left unlocked, and the Ottomans soon discovered this mistake.<ref>There was no question of bribery or deceit by the Ottomans; the gate had simply been overlooked, possibly because rubble from a cannon attack had obscured or blocked the door.</ref> The Ottomans rushed in. Around the same time, the defenders were being overwhelmed at several points in Constantine's section. When Turkish flags were seen flying above the Kerkoporta, a panic ensued and the defense collapsed. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the oncoming Ottomans, dying in the ensuing battle in the streets like his soldiers, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.<ref>Barbaro added the description of the emperor's heroic last moments to his diary based on information he received afterwards. According to some Ottoman sources Constantine was killed in an accidental encounter with Turkish marines a little further to the south, presumably while making his way to the Sea of Marmara in order to escape by sea. See Nicolle (2000).</ref> [[Image:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mehmed II]] enters Constantinople with his army by Fausto Zonaro]] After the initial assault, the Ottoman army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums, and past the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], which Mehmed II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch which would help him better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect key buildings such as the Holy Apostles, as he did not wish to establish his new capital in a thoroughly devastated city. The Army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection at this late hour. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring on the slave markets. There were some raping and pillaging according to the English historian [[John Julius Norwich]].<ref name="Norwich380"/> Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the spoils of war.<ref name="Norwich380">{{cite book|last=Norwich|first=John Julius|title=A Short History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Vintage Books|year=1997|pages=p. 380}}, "...the rape and pillage had already begun... ...by noon the streets were running with blood"</ref><ref name="Reinert283">{{cite book|last=Reinert|first=Stephen|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Oxford UP|year=2002|pages=p. 283}}..."the conquering sultan would quickly turn his attention to the more difficult task of rebuilding, repopulating and revitalizing the city..."</ref> At the conclusion of the siege, Mehmet ordered all looting to stop and sent his troops back outside the walls. <ref name="The Fall of Constantinople">{{cite book|last=Nicolle|first=David|title=The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2007|pages=p. 237, 238}} "In fact ordinary people were treated better by their Ottoman Conquerors than their ancestors had been by Crusaders back in 1204; only about 4,000 Greeks died in the siege." ... "Mehmet also ordered all looting to stop and sent his troops back outside the walls."</ref> There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. One of them holds that two priests saying [[divine liturgy]] over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day Constantinople returns to Christian hands.<ref>Mortimer Chambers, Barbara Hanawalt, Theodore Rab, Isser Woloch, Raymon Grew: "The Western Experience" 2003 McGraw-Hill</ref> Another legend refers to the ''Marble King'', Constantine XI, holding that, when the Ottomans entered the city, an angel rescued the emperor, turned him into marble and placed him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the [[sleeping hero]] legend).<ref>[http://www.aegean.gr/agios-therapontas/magazine/special/1453/Palaiologos.html The Marble King (in Greek)]</ref>.<ref>[http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/fall.html Odysseas Elytis's poem on Constantine XI Palaeologos]</ref> [[Image:ConstantinoXI.jpg|thumb|right|[[Constantine XI]]: The last Roman (Byzantine) emperor]] Byzantine historian [[George Sphrantzes]] was in the city, and witnessed the fall of Constantinople. He later recalled in his chronicle about the fall of the city, what happened at the end of the third day of the conquest: <blockquote>On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege, if they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.<ref>George Sphrantzes. ''The Fall of the Byzantine Empire: A Chronicle by George Sphrantzes 1401-1477''. Translated by Marios Philippides. University of Massachusetts Press, 1980. ISBN 9780870232909.</ref><ref>[[Michael Critobulus|Kritovoulos]] (or Kritoboulos). ''History of Mehmed the Conqueror''. Translated by Charles T. Riggs. Greenwood Press Reprint, 1970. ISBN 9780837131191.</ref><!-- there was a ref to p.133, but it is not clear which edition of which book (Sphrantzes or Kritovoulos) it referred to--></blockquote> Far from being in its heyday, by then, Constantinople was severely depopulated as a result of the general economic and territorial decline of the empire following its partial recovery from the disaster of the Fourth Crusade inflicted on it by the Christian army two centuries before. Therefore, the city in 1453 was a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled in whole by the fifth-century [[Walls of Constantinople#The Theodosian Walls|Theodosian walls]]. When the Ottoman troops first broke through the defenses, many of the leading citizens of these little townlets submitted their surrender to Mehmed's generals<ref name="runciman"/>. These villages, specifically along the land walls, were allowed to keep their citizens and churches and were protected by Mehmed's special contingents of Janissaries. It was these people who formed what the Ottomans called a [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Millet]], a self-governing community in the multi-national Ottoman Empire of which Constantinople was to become the capital. [[Hagia Sophia]] was converted into a mosque, although the [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Greek Orthodox Church]] remained intact, and [[Patriarch Gennadius II|Gennadius Scholarius]] was appointed [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]. [[Image:Hagia-Sophia-Laengsschnitt.jpg|left|thumb|230px|The "Church of the [[Holy Wisdom]]", or [[Hagia Sofia]], was converted into a [[mosque]]]] Many Greeks fled the city and found refuge in the [[Europe|Latin West]], bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition that further propelled the Renaissance, although the influx of Greek scholars into the West began much earlier, especially in the Northern [[Italian city-states]] which had started welcoming scholars in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The chancellor of Florence [[Coluccio Salutati]] began this cultural exchange in 1396 by inviting a Byzantine Scholar to lecture at the [[University of Florence]]. It was the Italians' hunger for Latin Classics and a command of the Greek Language that fueled the Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople were mostly confined to the [[Phanar]] and [[Galata]] districts. The [[Phanariot]]s, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman Sultans, but were seen as traitors by many Greeks. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Constantinos Paleologos at the battlements, dawn of the 29th May of 1453.jpg|thumb|A modern painting of [[Constantine XI]] at the battlements, at the dawn of [[29 May]] [[1453]]]] --> The [[Morea]]n (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers [[Thomas and Demetrius Palaeologus|Thomas and Demetrius]] ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers [[John VIII Palaeologus|John]] and Theodore.<ref name="Norwich Decline and Fall446"/> Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] fell to Mehmed. <ref name="Norwich Decline and Fall446">Norwich, John. ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'' Penguin: London, 1995. 446.</ref> Scholars consider the Fall of Constantinople as a key event ending the [[Middle Ages]] and starting the [[Renaissance]] because of the end of the old religious order in Europe and the use of cannon and gunpowder. The fall of Constantinople and general encroachment of the Turks in that region also severed the main overland trade link between Europe and Asia, and as a result more Europeans began to seriously consider the possibility of reaching [[History of Portugal (1415-1542)|Asia by sea]].<ref>Davis, Ralph. ''The Rise of the Atlantic Economies'' Ithaca, New York: Cornell UP, 1973. 9-10.</ref> ===Third Rome === With Byzantium considered the continuation of the Roman Empire, or the "Second Rome", the fall of Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the "[[Third Rome]]". The Papal States are described by a Russian monk as the "third...still standing",<ref>{{cite book|last=Parker|first=Geoffrey|title=Compact History of the World|location=London|publisher= Times Books|year=2005|pages=p. 48}}</ref> counting Moscow and the emerging power of the Russians as the fourth. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman empire's own claim. In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, declaring himself ''Kayser-i Rum'', literally "[[Caesar (title)|Caesar of Rome]]", that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror", founder of a political system that survived until [[1922]] with the establishment of the [[Republic of Turkey]] that has since held Constantinople (renamed Istanbul) but moved the capital of the Turkish state to [[Ankara]]. Such conflict in ideology only stimulated warfare between the two countries, with the 18th and 19th century seeing Russian armies approach slowly closer to Constantinople. [[Stefan Dušan]], Tsar of [[Serbia]], and [[Ivan Alexander]], Tsar of [[Bulgaria]] both made similar claims, regarding themselves as legitimate heirs to the Byzantine Empire. Other potential claimants, such as the [[Republic of Venice]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] have disintegrated into history. The [[Papal States]] were the final remaining claimant. Forged as the "Rome-Ravenna" corridor after Emperor Justinian's conquests, and later placed under Frankish protection, it could claim Byzantine descent until its conquest in 1870 by Victor Emanuel. ==Aftermath== The loss of the city was a massive blow to Christendom; the Pope called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade, but when no European monarch was willing to lead the crusade, the Pope himself decided to go; his early death eliminated the possibility of a counter-attack. With Constantinople beneath his belt, Mehmed II had acquired a great, rich city albeit one in decline due to years of war. The Capital allowed the Turks to establish a permanent supply base in Christian Europe. Further advances into Hungary and the principalities bordering the two kingdoms would have been difficult, if not impossible, without the harbors of Constantinople bringing in supplies and serving as a fortified center from which to administer the empire and strategy. In addition to the military and political benefits bestowed upon the Turks with its capture, it also brought the trade in Eastern Spices through Muslim intermediaries into a declining period. Europeans would continue to trade through Constantinople into the 16th century but high prices propelled the search for alternative sources of supply that did not pass through the intermediaries of the Ottomans and, to a lesser extent, the Safavids and Mamelukes. An increasing number of Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch ships began to attempt to sail to India via the southern tip of Africa. Indeed, had Columbus not believed that he would reach Asia to negotiate trade rights by sailing west--the mission as he presented it to his patron, the King of Spain--he would not have found the New World. ===Renaming=== It is widely believed that the city was renamed to "Istanbul" in the aftermath of the conquest. In actuality, Ottomans used the Arabic translation of the city, "Konstantiniyye," as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. The name [[Names of Istanbul#Istanbul|Istanbul]], deriving from a Greek phrase ("in the City", Greek eis -tin- polin ) was already spread among the populace before the conquest. Istanbul would become the official name of the city in 1930. ===Ottoman casualties=== Ottoman casualties are unknown; the Venetian surgeon Barbaro describes the sea around the capital floating with the bodies of the Turks and Christians "like melons out to canal". Whatever the Ottoman casualties, the Empire had to recover its strength; to the East lay the Karamanids, and to the North the Hungarians and numerous smaller states, such as the Despotate of Morea and the many Slavic territories in the Balkans contested by Hungary. ==Cultural references== ===Western cultural impact=== The Christian reconquest of Constantinople remained a fascinating and much sought-after event in Western Europe for years to come after its fall to the [[House of Osman]]. Rumours of Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands. However as Western Europe entered the 15th century the age of Crusading began to come to an end. Initially, the fall of the city seemed to cause a stir of crusading zeal in the West, where, apart from religious sentiments, [[Renaissance humanism]] had for about a century been fuelling an interest in the cultural and intellectual heritage of [[classical antiquity]], and the role that Byzantium had played in preserving that heritage. [[Guillaume Dufay]] composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, the duke of Burgundy, [[Philip the Good]], [[Voeux du faisan|avowed]] to take up arms against the Turks, and [[Pope Pius II]] went to great lengths trying to organize a crusade which was to reconquer the city, but any genuine enthusiasm that existed was short-lived, and a crusade never came into effect. With the [[Protestant Reformation]] and subsequent [[counter-reformation]], the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once the greatest participants of the Crusades became an ally of the Ottomans. Nonetheless depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mango|first=Cyril|title=The Oxford History of Byzantium|location=New York|publisher= Oxford UP|year=2002|pages=p. 280}}</ref> Entertaining such ideas became politically incorrect in the Western world after the [[Turkish war of independence]], where Turkey emerged with a secular republic constitution. ===Eastern cultural impact=== Contrary to popular belief, the name of the city remained Constantinople and the Turks did not change the name until Turkey emerged as a new nation. An example illustrating the retention of the Greco-Roman Christian name is the [[Convention of Constantinople]]. The fall of the city fulfilled the call of the city's capture hundreds of years earlier.<ref>[http://starr.pausd.org/~avarni/VarnrWebDesign1A/04/Garrett%20Morton/ott_his.htm Ottoman History<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> With the rise of Arab nationalism however and the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, the efforts of Saladin became more popular in the Middle East than the achievements of Mehmed. ==See also== {{Portal|Military history of the Ottoman Empire|image=Topcu_arma.jpg}} *[[Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] *[[Great Turkish Bombard]] *[[Greek fire]] *[[Byzantine navy]] *[[Walls of Constantinople]] *[[Loukas Notaras]] *[[Sophia Paleologue]] *[[Michael Critobulus]] *[[Laonicus Chalcondyles]] *[[George Phrantza|George Sphrantzes]] *[[Istanbul (etymology)]] *[[Mehmed II]] *[[Kuwae]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} {{1911}} ==References== *[[Franz Babinger]]: ''Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time'' (1992) Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-01078-1 *[http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/sources/constantinople3.htm The Siege of Constantinople] (1453), according to the eyewitness Nicolo Barbaro *[[Richard A. Fletcher]]: ''The Cross and the Crescent'' (2005) Penguin Group ISBN: 0-14-303481-2 * Jonathan Harris, ''Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium'' (2007) Hambledon/Continuum. ISBN: 978 1847251794 *{{cite book|last = Nicolle|first = David|authorlink=David Nicolle|year = 2000|title = Constantinople 1453: The end of Byzantium|publisher = Osprey Publishing|id = ISBN 1-84176-091-9}} *{{cite book | last = Norwich | first = John Julius | authorlink = John Julius Norwich | year = 1995 | title = Byzantium: The Decline and Fall | publisher = Alfred A. Knopf | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-679-41650-1 }} *{{cite book | last = Pertusi | first = Agostino, ed. | year = 1976 | title = La Caduta di Costantinopoli, I: Le testimonianze dei contemporanei | publisher = Fondazione Lorenzo Valla | location = Verona }} *{{cite book | last = Pertusi | first = Agostino, ed. | year = 1976 | title = La Caduta di Costantinopoli, II: L’eco nel mondo | publisher = Fondazione Lorenzo Valla | location = Verona }} *{{cite book | last = Runciman | first = Steven | authorlink = Steven Runciman | year = 1965 | title = The Fall of Constantinople: 1453 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = London | id = ISBN 0-521-39832-0 }} *Smith, Michael Llewellyn, "The Fall of Constantinople", in ''History Makers magazine'' No. 5 (London, Marshall Cavendish, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1969) p. 192 *Andrew Wheatcroft: ''The Infidels: The Conflict Between Christendom and Islam, 638–2002'' (2003) Viking Publishing ISBN 0-670-86942-2 *[[Justin Wintle]]: ''The Rough Guide History of Islam'' (2003) Rough Guides ISBN 1-84353-018-X ==External links== *''The Trouble with Turkey: The Fall of Constantinople'' The Economist 1999 http://www.economist.com/diversions/millennium/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=346800 *[http://www.ramagazine.org.uk/index.php?pid=232 The Cross and the Crescent] Exhibit: Royal Academy of Arts Magazine Spring 2005 {{History of Turkey}} [[Category:1453 in Europe]] [[Category:1453 in Asia]] [[Category:15th century conflicts]] [[Category:Battles involving the Ottoman Empire|Constantinople 1453]] [[Category:Battles involving the Byzantine Empire|Constantinople 1453]] [[Category:Sieges involving the Ottoman Empire|Constantinople]] [[Category:Byzantine-Ottoman wars]] [[Category:Sieges of Constantinople|1453]] [[Category:East-West Schism]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|he}} {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|ro}} {{Link FA|sr}} [[ar:فتح القسطنطينية]] [[be-x-old:Падзеньне Канстантынопалю]] [[bs:Pad Konstantinopolja]] [[bg:Превземане на Константинопол (1453)]] [[ca:Caiguda de Constantinoble]] [[cs:Obléhání Konstantinopole (1453)]] [[da:Konstantinopels fald]] [[de:Belagerung von Konstantinopel (1453)]] [[el:Άλωση της Κωνσταντινούπολης]] [[es:Caída de Constantinopla]] [[fr:Chute de Constantinople]] [[gl:Caída de Constantinopla]] [[hr:Pad Carigrada]] [[ko:콘스탄티노폴리스의 함락]] [[id:Jatuhnya Konstantinopel]] [[it:Assedio di Costantinopoli (1453)]] [[he:כיבוש קונסטנטינופול]] [[lv:Konstantinopoles krišana]] [[lt:Konstantinopolio žlugimas]] [[hu:Konstantinápoly eleste]] [[mk:Падот на Константинопол(1453)]] [[ms:Kejatuhan Constantinople]] [[nl:Beleg en val van Constantinopel (1453)]] [[ja:コンスタンティノープルの陥落]] [[pl:Upadek Konstantynopola]] [[pt:Queda de Constantinopla]] [[ro:Căderea Constantinopolului]] [[ru:Падение Константинополя]] [[sr:Пад Цариграда (1453)]] [[sh:Pad Carigrada (1453)]] [[fi:Konstantinopolin piiritys]] [[sv:Konstantinopels fall]] [[tr:İstanbul'un fethi]] [[ur:فتح قسطنطنیہ]] [[zh:君士坦丁堡之陷落]]