Family name 10814 225642353 2008-07-14T18:19:07Z Rossco1888 7475537 {{Mergefrom|Surname|date=July 2008}} {{redirect|Last name|the song|Last Name}} A '''family name''' or '''last name''' is a type of [[surname]] and part of a [[personal name|person's name]] indicating the family to which the person belongs. The use of family names is widespread in cultures around the world. Each culture has its own rules as to how these names are applied and used. In many cultures (notably Western, Middle Eastern, and African) the family name is typically the last part of a person's name. In some other cultures, the family name comes first. The latter is often called the [[Personal name#Name order|Eastern order]] because Europeans are most familiar with the examples of [[Chinese name|China]], [[Korean name|Korea]], [[Japanese name|Japan]] and [[Vietnamese name|Vietnam]]. Because the family name is normally given last in English-speaking societies, the term '''last name''' is commonly used for ''family name''. Family names are most often used to refer to a stranger or in a formal setting, and are often used with a [[title]] or [[honorific]] such as [[Mr.]], [[Mrs.]], [[Ms.]], [[Miss]], [[Dr.]], and so on. Generally the [[given name]], Christian name, first name, forename, or personal name is the one used by friends, family, and other intimates to address an individual. It may also be used by someone who is in some way senior to the person being addressed. ==Research on individual names== [[Onomastics]] is the study of proper names of all kinds, including family names. A [[one-name study]] is a collection of vital and other biographical data about all persons worldwide sharing a particular surname. The ''[http://www.one-name.org/ Guild of One-Name Studies]'' is a major UK-based organization in this field. ==History== The oldest use of family or surnames is unclear. Surnames have arisen in cultures with large, concentrated populations where single names for individuals became insufficient to identify them clearly. In many cultures, the practice of using additional descriptive terms in identifying individuals has arisen. These identifying terms or descriptors may indicate personal attributes, location of origin, occupation, parentage, patronage, adoption, or clan affiliation. Often these descriptors developed into fixed clan identifications which became family names in the sense that we know them today. In China, according to legend, family names originated with Emperor Fu Xi in 2852 BC.<ref>Serena Seng, ''The Origin of Chinese Surnames'', Genealogy, About.com[http://genealogy.about.com/library/authors/ucboey2a.htm]</ref> His administration standardised the naming system in order to facilitate census-taking, and the use of census information. The surnames "Zhu," "Lee," "Chung" and "Chang" are most popular in Taiwan, and/or China. In Japan family names were uncommon except among the aristocracy until the 19th century. In Ancient Greece, during some periods, it became common to use one's place of origin as a part of a person's official identification.<ref name = "Ancient Names - Greek and Roman Names">''Ancient Names - Greek and Roman Names'', Ancient / Classical History, About.com[http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/nameetymologies/p/AncientNames.htm]</ref> At other times, clan names and patronymics ("son of") were also common. For example, [[Alexander the Great]] was known by the clan name Heracles and was, therefore, Heracleides (as a supposed descendant of [[Heracles]]) and by the dynastic name Karanos/Caranus, which referred to the founder of the dynasty to which he belonged. In none of these cases, though, were these names considered formal parts of the person's name, nor were they explicitly inherited in the manner which is common in many cultures today. They did, however, survive with a vengeance as clan names as 'Greeks' or 'Hellenes' or 'Minoans', as opposed to the toponimic 'The Sea Peoples' used by the Egyptians, or 'Ionians', which is one of the names still used for the Greeks today by Arab-speaking people as 'Younanis'. In the Roman Empire, the bestowal and use of clan and family names waxed and waned with changes in the various subcultures of the realm. At the outset, they were not strictly inherited in the way that family names are inherited in many cultures today. Eventually, though, family names began to be used in a manner similar to most modern European societies. With the gradual influence of Greek/Christian culture throughout the Empire, the use of formal family names declined.<ref name = "Roman Names">''Personal Names of the Aristocracy in the Roman Empire During the Later Byzantine Era'', The Society for Creative Anachronism, Inc., retrieved [[May 20]], [[2007]] [http://www.sca.org/heraldry/laurel/names/byzantine/introduction.html]</ref> By the time of the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, family names were uncommon in the Eastern Roman (i.e. ''Byzantine'') Empire. In Western Europe where Germanic culture dominated the aristocracy, family names were almost non-existent. They would not significantly reappear again in Eastern Roman society until the 10th century, apparently influenced by the familial affiliations of the Armenian military aristocracy.<ref name = "Roman Names"/> The practice of using family names spread through the Eastern Roman Empire and gradually into Western Europe although it was not until the modern era that family names came to be explicitly inherited in the way that they are today. In the case of England, the most accepted theory of the origin of family names is to attribute their introduction to the [[Normans]] and the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086. As such, documents indicate that surnames were first adopted among the feudal nobility and gentry, and only slowly spread to the other parts of society. Some of the early Norman nobility arriving in England during the Norman Conquest differentiated themselves by affixing 'de' (of) in front of the name of their village in France. This is what is known as a territorial surname, a consequence of feudal landownership. In medieval times in France, those distinguishing themselves by this manner indicated lordship, or ownership, of their village. But some early Norman nobles in England chose to drop the French derivations and simply call themselves after the name of their new English holdings. During the modern era, many cultures around the world adopted the practice of using family names, particularly for administrative reasons, especially during the imperialistic age of European expansion and particularly from the 17th to 19th centuries onwards. Notably examples include the Netherlands (1811), Japan (1870s), Thailand (1920), and Turkey (1934). Nonetheless, their use is not universal: Icelanders, Tibetans, Burmese, and Javanese do not use family names. ==By language== ===English-speaking countries=== In Britain, hereditary surnames were adopted in the 13th and 14th centuries, initially by the aristocracy but eventually by everyone. By 1400, most [[English people|English]] and [[Scottish people]] had acquired surnames, but many Scottish and Welsh people did not adopt surnames until the 17th century, or even later. Henry VIII (1509 - 1547) ordered that marital births be recorded under the surname of the father. <ref>Doll, Cynthia B., "Harmonizing Filial and Parental Rights in Names: Progress, Pitfalls, and Constitutional Problems", Howard Law Journal, 1992, p. 229.</ref> Most surnames of British origin fall into seven types: * Occupations (e.g., ''[[Smith (surname)|Smith]]'', ''[[Sawyer]]'', ''[[Clark]]'', ''[[Cooper]]'', ''Cook'', ''Carpenter'', ''Forrester'', ''Head'', ''Archer'', ''Baker'', ''Dyer'', ''Walker'', ''Woodman'', ''Taylor'', ''Turner'', ''Knight'', ''Weaver'') * Personal characteristics (e.g., ''Short'', ''Brown'', ''Black'', ''Whitehead'', ''Long'') * Geographical features (e.g., ''Hill'', ''Bridge'', ''Lee'', ''Wood'', ''Forest'', ''Fields'', ''Stone'', ''Morley'', ''Head'' &mdash;[[Middle English language|Middle English]] for ''hed'' = given a person who lived at the head of a river or on a hilltop.) * Place names (e.g., ''[[Washington, Tyne and Wear|Washington]]'', ''London'', ''Leighton'', ''Hamilton'', ''Sutton'', ''Flint'', ''Laughton'') * For those descended from land-owners, the name of their holdings, manor or estate (the name ''Washington'' can also fall into this category, [[Old English]] components ''Hwæssa-inga-tūn'' "estate of the descendants of Wassa") * [[Patronymic]]s, [[matronymic]]s or ancestral, often from a person's given name (e.g., from male name: ''Richardson'', ''Williams'', ''Thompson'', ''Johnson'') or female names ''Molson'' (from Moll for Mary), ''Madison'' (from Maud), ''Emmott'' (from Emma), ''Marriott'' (from Mary) or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g., ''MacDonald'', ''Forbes'') with "Mac" [[Scottish Gaelic]] for son. *Patronal, from patronage (''Hickman'' meaning Hick's man, where Hick is a pet form of the name Richard) or strong ties of religion ''Kilpatrick'' (follower of [[Patrick]]) or ''Kilbride'' (follower of [[Bridget]]). The original meaning of the name may no longer be obvious in modern English (e.g., a ''Cooper'' is one who makes barrels, and the name ''Tillotson'' is a matronymic from a diminutive for ''Matilda''). A much smaller category of names relates to religion, though some of this category are also occupations. The names ''Bishop'', ''Priest'', or ''Abbot'', for example, may indicate that an ancestor worked for a bishop, a priest, or an abbot, respectively, or possibly took such a role in a popular religious play (see [[pageant play]]). In the Americas, the family names of many African-Americans have their origins in slavery (''i.e.'' [[slave name]]). Many of them came to bear the surnames of their former owners. Many freed slaves either created family names themselves or adopted the name of their former master. Others, such as [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Malcolm X]] changed their name rather than live with one they believed had been given to their ancestors by a slave owner. In England and cultures derived from there (though not in France, for example), there has long been the patriarchal tradition for a woman to change her surname upon marriage from her [[birth name]] to her husband's last name. From the first known instance of a woman keeping her birth name, [[Lucy Stone]] in the 19th century, there has been a general increase in the rate of women keeping their original name. This has gone through periods of flux, however, and the 1990s saw a decline in the percentage of name retention among women. As of 2004, roughly 60% of American women automatically assumed their husband's surname upon getting married.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Even in families where the wife has kept her birth name, parents often choose to give their children their father's family name. In English-speaking countries, married women are traditionally known as ''Mrs [Husband's full name]''. In the Middle Ages, when a man from a lower status family married an only daughter from a higher status family, he would often take the wife's family name. In the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, bequests were sometimes made contingent upon a man changing (or hyphenating) his name, so that the name of the [[testator]] continued. It is rare but not unknown for English-speaking men to take the name of their wives, whether for personal reasons or as a matter of tradition (such as among [[First Nations|Canadian aboriginal]] groups, especially the [[matrilineal]] [[Haida]] and [[Kwakiutl]]); it is increasingly common in the United States, a married couple may choose a new last name entirely.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} This has become more widely popular in Southern California since the election of Antonio Villaraigosa as Los Angeles mayor.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} As an alternative, both spouses may adopt a [[double-barrelled name]]. For instance, when John Smith and Mary Jones marry each other, they may become known as ''John Smith-Jones'' and ''Mary Smith-Jones''. However, some consider the extra length of the hyphenated names undesirable. A spouse may also opt to use his or her birth name as a middle name. An additional option is the adoption of a last name derived from an aesthetically pleasing combination of the prior names, such as "Simones". Some couples keep their own last names but give their children hyphenated or combined surnames. In some jurisdictions, a woman's legal name used to change automatically upon marriage. That change is no longer a requirement, but women may still easily change to their husband's surname. Men can easily change their surname upon marriage with the federal government, through the Social Security Administration, but may face difficulty on the state level in some states. In some places, civil rights lawsuits or constitutional amendments changed the law so that men could also easily change their married names (e.g., in British Columbia and California).<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070112/ap_on_re_us/take_my_wife_s_name</ref> (Note: many Anglophone countries are also common-law countries.) Many people choose to change their name when they marry, while others do not. There are many reasons why people maintain their surname. One is that dropped surnames disappear throughout generations, while the adopted surname survives. Another reason is that if a person's surname is well known due to his or her particular family's heritage or prominence, he or she may choose to keep his or her birth surname. Yet another is the identity crisis people may experience when giving up their surname. People in academia, for example, who have previously published articles in academic journals under their birth name often do not change their surname after marriage, in order to ensure that they continue to receive credit for their past and future work. This practice is also common among physicians, attorneys, and other professionals, as well as celebrities for whom continuity is important. Though the practice of women maintaining their surname after marriage is increasing, it has not caught on in the general population and there is great peer pressure for women to change their names. Practices among same-sex married couples do not at this point follow any discernible pattern, with some choosing to share surnames, while others do not. In Southern Gospel and folk music, families often perform together as groups. When female artists in these genres marry, they usually adopt double-barrelled surnames if the husband comes from a noted musical family as well (e.g. [[The Speer Family|Allison Durham Speer]], [[The Crabb Family|Kelly Crabb Bowling]]), or simply continue to go by their birth names if the husband is not from such a family (e.g. [[Karen Peck and New River|Karen Peck]], [[The Perrys|Libbi Perry]], [[Janet Paschal]]). Spelling of names in past centuries is often assumed to be a deliberate choice by a family, but due to very low literacy rates, the reality is that many families could not provide the spelling of their surname, and so the scribe, clerk, minister, or official would write down the name on the basis of how it was spoken, or how they heard it. This results in a great many variations, some of which occurred when families moved to another country (e.g. Wagner becoming Wagoner, or Whaley becoming Whealy). With the increase in bureaucracy, officially-recorded spellings tended to become the standard for a given family. ===Spanish-speaking countries=== {{details|Spanish naming customs}} In medieval times, a patronymic system similar to the one still used in Iceland emerged. For example, ''Álvaro'', the son of ''Rodrigo'' would be named ''Álvaro Rodríguez''. His son, ''Juan'', would not be named ''Juan Rodríguez'', but ''Juan Álvarez''. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish-speaking world. Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. ''Delgado'' ("thin") and ''Moreno'' ("tan"); occupations, e.g. ''Molinero'' ("miller"), ''Rey'' ("King") and ''Guerrero'' ("warrior"); and geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. ''Alemán'' ("German"). However, nowadays in Spain and in many Spanish-speaking countries (former Spanish colonies, e.g. [[Philippines]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Cuba]], [[Guatemala]], [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Chile]], [[Venezuela]]), most people have two family names, although in some situations only the first is used. The first family name is the paternal one, inherited from the father's paternal family name. The second family name is the maternal one, inherited from the mother's paternal family name. (As an example, [[Mexican]] boxer [[Marco Antonio Barrera]]'s full name is '''Marco Antonio Barrera Tapia''', though Barrera is the only one used in general conversation. In Spain, a new law approved in 1999 allows an adult to change the order of his/her family names, and parents can also change the order of their children's family names if they agree (if one of their children is at least 12 years old they need his/her agreement too).<ref>http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/Privado/rd193-2000.html</ref> (Link in Spanish) Depending on the country, the family names may or may not be linked by the conjunction ''y'' ("and"), ''i'' ("and", in [[Catalonia]]), ''de'' ("of") and ''de la'' ("of the", when the following word is feminine). However, in many South American countries, people have now adopted the English-speaking custom of having a single family name (e.g., in [[Argentina]]). Sometimes a new father transmits his complete family name by creating a new one, combining his two family names, e.g., the paternal surname of the son of ''Javier'' (given name) ''Reyes'' (paternal family name) ''de la Barrera'' (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname ''Reyes de la Barrera''. At present in [[Spain]], women upon marrying keep their own two family names. In certain rare situations, especially the nobility, she may be addressed as if her maternal surname had been replaced with her husband's paternal surname, often linked with ''de''. For example, a woman named ''Ana García Díaz'', upon marrying ''Juan Guerrero Macías'', could be called ''Ana García de Guerrero''. This custom, begun in medieval times, is decaying and only has legal validity in [[Mexico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Peru]] and [[Panama]]. In Mexico, when women get married they keep their first family name followed by "de" and then the husband's last name. For example ''María Martínez López'' when married to ''Josué Vásquez Hernández'' would then be ''María Martínez de Vásquez''. In Peru and the Dominican Republic, women normally conserve all family names after getting married. For example, if ''Rosa María Pérez Martínez'' marries ''Juan Martín De La Cruz Gómez'', she will be called ''Rosa María Pérez Martínez de De La Cruz'', and if the husband dies, she will be called ''Rosa María Pérez Martínez Vda. de De La Cruz'' (Vda. is the abbreviation for Viuda, "widow" in Spanish). In Ecuador, a couple can choose the order of their children's surnames. Most choose the traditional order (e.g., ''Guerrero García'' in the example above), but some invert the order, putting the mother's paternal surname first and the father's paternal surname last (e.g., ''García Guerrero'' from the example above). Such inversion, if chosen, must be maintained for all the children. In [[Argentina]] only one family name, the father's paternal family name, is commonly used and registered, as in English-speaking countries (the real reason why many Argentinians [but by no means all, a large proportion of them use two as per Spanish usage] use one last name is because a large proportion of the dominant class come from Italian ascent, and therefore follow the conventions of this country). Women, however, do not change their family names upon marriage and continue to use their [[Married and maiden names|birth family name]]s instead of their husband's family names. In [[Cuba]], both men and women carry their two family names (first their father's, and second their mother's). Both are equally important and are mandatory for any official document. Married women never change their original family names for their husband's. Even when they migrate to other countries where this is a common practice, many prefer to adhere to their Cuban heritage and keep their maiden name. ===French-speaking countries=== {{details|French name etymology}} '''France''' {{details|French name}} '''Belgium''' {{details|Wallonian name}} '''Canadian''' {{details|Canadian name}} ===German-speaking countries=== {{details|German family name etymology}} There are about 1,000,000{{Fact|date=November 2007}} different family names in German. German family names most often derive from given names, occupational designations, bodily attributes or geographical names. Hyphenations notwithstanding, they mostly consist of a single word; in those rare cases where the family name is linked to the given names by particles such as ''von'' or ''zu'', they usually indicate [[nobility|noble]] [[ancestry]]. Not all noble families used these names (see [[Riedesel]]), while some farm families, particularly in Westphalia, used the particle ''von'' or ''zu'' followed by their farm or former farm's name as a family name (see ''Meyer zu Erpen''). Family names in German-speaking countries are usually positioned last, after all given names. There are exceptions, however: In parts of [[Austria]] and the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic-speaking]] areas, the family name is regularly put in front of the first given name. Also in many - especially [[rural]] - parts of Germany, to emphasize family affiliation there is often an inversion in colloquial use, in which the family name becomes a [[possessive]]: ''Rüters Erich'', for example, would be Erich of the Rüter family. In Germany today, upon marriage, both partners can choose to keep their birth name or one of them can adopt a hyphenated name of their birth names (the latter case is forbidden for both partners and for the last names of children), or one of them can switch to their partner's name (if the partner keeps it). After that, they must decide on one family name for all their future children, by pretty much the same rules. ([[German name]])<br /> Changing one's family name for reasons other than marriage, divorce or adoption is only possible in Germany if the applicant can prove that they suffer extraordinarily due to their name. ===Portuguese-speaking countries=== {{further|[[Portuguese name]]}} In the case of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] naming customs, the main surname (the one used in alphasorting, indexing, abbreviations, and greetings), appears last (reverse the order of Spanish surnames). Each person usually has two family names: the first is the maternal family name; the last is the paternal family name. A person can have up to six names (two first names and four surnames &mdash; he or she may have two names from the mother and two from the father). In ancient times a [[patronymic]] was commonly used &mdash; surnames like ''Gonçalves'' ("son of ''Gonçalo''"), ''Fernandes'' ("son of ''Fernando''"), ''Nunes'' ("son of ''Nuno''"), ''Soares'' ("son of ''Soeiro''"), ''Sanches'' ("son of ''Sancho''"), ''Henriques'' ("son of ''Henrique''") which along with many others are still in regular use as very prevalent family names. Brazilians usually call people only by their given names, omitting family names, even in many formal situations (as in the press referring to authorities, e.g. "Former President Fernando Henrique", never Former President Cardoso), or "President Lula" ("Lula" was actually his [[nickname]]). When formality or a prefix requires a family name, the given name usually precedes the surname, e.g. ''João Santos'', or ''Sr. João Santos''. ===Dutch-speaking countries=== {{details|Netherlands name etymology}} '''The Netherlands''' {{details|Dutch name}} '''Belgium''' {{details|Flanders name}} '''South Africa''' {{details|Afrikaner name}} ==By country== ===Armenia=== [[Armenian surnames]] almost always have the ending ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]: յան) transliterated into English as -yan or -ian (spelled -ean (եան) in Western Armenian and pre-Soviet Eastern Armenian, of [[Parthian Language|Parthian]] origin, presumably meaning "son of"), though names with that ending can also be found among Persians and a few other nationalities. Armenian surnames can derive from a geographic location, profession, noble rank, personal characteristic or personal name of an ancestor. Armenians in the diaspora sometimes adapt their surnames to help assimiliation. In Russia, many have changed -yan to -ov (or -ova for women). In Turkey, many have changed the ending to -oglu (also meaning "son of"). In English and French-speaking countries, many have shortened their name by removing the ending (for example [[Charles Aznavour]]). In ancient Armenia, many noble names ended with the locative -t'si (example, [[Moses of Chorene|Khorenatsi]]) or -uni ([[Bagratuni]]). Several modern Armenian names also have a Turkish suffix which appears before -ian/-yan: -lian denotes a placename; -djian denotes a profession. Some Western Armenian names have a particle Der, while their Eastern counterparts have Ter. This particle indicates an ancestor who was a priest (Armenian priests can choose to marry or remain celibate, but married priests cannot become bishop). Thus someone named Der Bedrosian (Western) or Ter Petrosian (Eastern) is a descendent of an Armenian priest. The convention is still in use today: the children of a priest named Hagop Sarkisian would be called Der Sarkisian. ===Azerbaijan=== Traditional [[Azeri surnames]] usually end with "-lı", "-lu", (Turkic for 'with' or 'belonging to'), "-oğlu", "-qızı" (Turkic for 'son of' and 'daughter of'), "-zade"(Persian for 'born of'). Some Iranian Azerbaijanis use suffixes such as '-pour' or '-zadeh' meaning 'born of' with their father's name but it is more usual for them to use the name of the city they or their ancestors lived in (e.g. Tabrizpour for those from Tabriz) or their occupation (e.g. Damirchizadeh for blacksmiths). However, following the occupation of Azerbaijan by the Red Army, the coutry became part of the Soviet Union. As a result, Azeri people were forced to abandon their traditional Azeri surname suffixes which were then replaced by Russian "-ov", "-yev" for men and "-ova", "-yeva" for women. In 1991, Azerbaijan gained its independence from the Soviet Union. Since then, more and more Azeris are switching back to their original surnames. === Finland === {{main|Finnish name}} Finland has two predominant surname traditions: the [[West Finnish]] and the [[East Finnish]]. Until the early 20th Century, Finland was a predominantly [[agriculture|agrarian]] society and the names of West [[Finnish people|Finns]] were based on their association with a particular area, [[farm]], or [[Smallholding|homestead]], e.g. ''Jaakko Jussila'' ("Jaakko from the farm of Jussi"). On the other hand, the East Finnish surname tradition dates back to 13th century. There, the [[Savonia]]ns pursued [[slash-and-burn]] agriculture which necessitated moving several times during a person's lifetime. This in turn required the families to have surnames, which were in wide use among the common folk as early as in the 13th century. By the mid-16th century, the East Finnish surnames had become hereditary. Typically, the oldest East Finnish surnames were formed from the first names of the patriarchs of the families, e.g ''Ikävalko'', ''Termonen'', ''Pentikäinen''. In the 16th, 17th and 17th centuries, new names were most often formed by adding the place name of the former or current place of living (e.g. ''Puumalainen'' < [[Puumala]]). In the East Finnish tradition, the females carried the family name of their fathers in female form (e.g. ''Puumalatar'' < ''Puumalainen''). By 19th century, this practice fell into disuse due to the influence of West-European surname tradition. In Western Finland, the agrarian names dominated, and the last name of the person was usually given according to the farm or holding they lived on. In 1921, surnames became compulsory for all Finns. At this point, the agrarian names were usually adopted as surnames. A typical feature of such names is the addition of prefixes ''Ala-'' (Sub-) or ''Ylä-'' (Up-), giving the location of the holding along a waterway in relation of the main holding. (e.g. ''Yli-Ojanperä'', ''Ala-Verronen'') A third, foreign tradition of surnames was introduced in Finland by the Swedish-speaking upper and middle classes which used typical German and Swedish surnames. By custom, all Finnish-speaking persons who were able to get a position of some status in urban or learned society, discarded their Finnish name, adopting a Swedish, German or (in case of clergy) Latin surnames. In the case of [[Swedish allotment system|enlisted soldiers]], the new name was given regardless of the wishes of the individual. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the overall modernization process and especially, the political movement of [[fennicization]] caused a movement for adoption of Finnish surnames. At that time, many persons with a Swedish or otherwise foreign surname changed their family name to a Finnish one. The features of nature with endings ''-o/ö'', ''-nen'' (''Meriö'' < ''Meri'' "sea", ''Nieminen'' < ''Niemi'' "point") are typical of the names of this era, as well as more or less direct translations of Swedish names (''Paasivirta'' < ''Hällström'').<ref>The whole section is based on the article Paikkala, S. [http://www.fennia.nu/artiklar/sukunimet_paikkala_sv.htm Sukunimet sukututkimuksessa]. Retrieved 11-6-2007. {{fi}}</ref> In the 21st century Finland, the use of surnames follows the [[German name|German model]]. Every person is legally obliged to have a first and last name. At most, three first names are allowed. The Finnish married couple may adopt the name of either spouse, or either spouse (or both spouses) may decide to use a [[Double-barrelled name|double barrelled]] name. The parents may choose either surname or the double barrelled surname for their children, but all siblings must share the same surname <ref>http://www.mol.fi/mol/fi/99_pdf/fi/04_maahanmuutto/07_aineistot_kirjasto/01_esitteet/tasarv/tasarv_eng.pdf</ref>. All persons have the right to change their surname once without any specific reason. A surname that is un-Finnish, contrary to the usages of the Swedish or Finnish languages or is in use by any person resident in Finland cannot be accepted as the new name, unless valid family reasons or religious or national customs give a reason for waiving this requirement. However, persons may change their surname to any surname that has ever been used by their ancestors, if they can prove such claim.<ref>The information here is taken from the Finnish [http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1985/19850694 ''Nimilaki (694/1985)] (Name Act). Retrieved 11-6-2007</ref> Some immigrants have had difficulty naming their children, as they must choose from an approved list based on the family's household language. In the Finnish language, the root of the surname can be modified by [[consonant gradation]] regularly when inflected to a case. In contrast, first names do not undergo qualitative gradation (e.g. ''Hilta - Hiltan''), only quantitative gradation (''Mikko - Mikon''). ===Georgia=== {{main|Georgian surnames}} Most eastern [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] surnames end with the suffix of "-shvili", Georgian for "child" or "offspring". Western Georgian surnames most commonly have the suffix "-dze", Georgian for "son". [[Megrelian]] surnames usually end in "-ia" or "ua". Other location-specific endings exist: In [[Svaneti]] "-iani", meaning "belonging to", or "hailing from", is common. In the eastern Georgian highlands common endings are "uri" and "uli". Some [[nobility|noble]] family names end in "eli", meaning "of (someplace)". In [[Georgian language|Georgian]], the surname is not normally used as the polite form of address; instead, the given name is used together with a title. For instance, [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] is politely addressed as ''bat'oni Edvardi'' "Mr. Eduard". ===Greece=== Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics. Occupation, characteristic or ethnic background and location/origin-based surnames names also occur; they are sometimes supplemented by nicknames. Commonly, Greek male surnames end in -s, which is the common ending for Greek masculine [[proper nouns]] in the [[nominative case]]. Exceptionally, some end in -ou, indicating the [[genitive case]] of this proper noun for patronymic reasons. Although surnames are static today, dynamic and changing patronym usage survives in middle names in Greece where the genitive of father's first name is commonly the middle name. Because of their codification in the Modern Greek state, surnames have [[Katharevousa]] forms even though Katharevousa is no longer the official standard. Thus, the Ancient Greek name Eleutherios forms the Modern Greek proper name Lefteris, and former vernacular practice (prefixing the surname to the proper name) was to call John Eleutherios as '''Leftero-giannis'''. Modern practice is to call the same person Giannis Eleftheriou: the proper name is vernacular (and not Ioannis), but the surname is an archaic genitive. Female surnames, are most often in the [[Katharevousa]] [[genitive case]] of a male name. This is an innovation of the Modern Greek state; Byzantine practice was to form a feminine counterpart of the male surname (e.g. masculine Palaiologos, Byzantine feminine Palaiologina, Modern feminine Palaiologou). In the past, women would change their surname when married, to that of their husband (again in genitive case) signifying the transfer of "dependence" from the father to the husband. In earlier Modern Greek society, women were named with '''''-aina''''' as a feminine suffix on the husband's first name: "Giorgaina", "Mrs George", "Wife of George". Nowadays, a woman's surname does not change upon marriage, though she can use the husband's surname socially. Children usually receive the paternal surname, though in rare cases, if the bride and groom have agreed before the marriage, the children can receive the maternal surname. Some surnames are prefixed with '''''Papa-''''', indicating ancestry from a priest, i.e. ."Papadopoulos", the "son of the priest (''papas'')". Others, like '''''Archi-''''' and '''''Mastro-''''' signify "boss" and "[[tradesman]]" respectively. Prefixes such as '''''Konto-''''', '''''Makro-''''', and '''''Chondro-''''', describe body characteristics, such as "short", "tall/long" and "fat". '''"Gero-"''' and '''"Palaio-"''' signify "old" or "wise". Other prefixes include '''''[[hajji|Hadji]]-''''' which was an honorific deriving from the Arabic [[Hadj]] or pilgrimage, and indicate that the person had made a pilgrimage (in the case of Christians to Jerusalem) and '''''Kara-''''' which is attributed to the Turkish word for "black" deriving from the [[Ottoman Empire]] era. [[Arvanitic]] surnames are also common. For example, the Arvanitic word for "brave" or "''pallikari''" (in Greek) being "çanavar" or its shortened form "çavar" was pronounced "tzanavar" or "tzavar" giving birth to traditional Arvanitic family names like "Tzanavaras" and/or "Tzavaras".<ref>Tzavaras, Ath.: "Agapite Aderfe Vasileie", Ekdosis Exantas, Athens 1999</ref> Most Greek patronymic suffixes are diminutives, which vary by region. The most common Hellenic patronymic suffixes are: *'''''-poulos/-poulou''''', which means "the little", representing "the son of ...", so a man whose family name is "Christopoulos" means that his father was named "Christos". This suffix is very spread mostly throughout the whole [[Greece]] and is original from the [[Peloponessus]] in particular. *'''''-idis/-idou''''' and '''''-iadis/-iadou''''' are both very ancient last names and clan forms used in the [[Pontus]] and [[Asia Minor]] regions, i.e. "Michailidis", the "clan of Michael" * '''''-akis/-aki''''' is associated primarily with [[Crete]] and the [[Aegean Islands]]. A patronymic signifying "little" and/or "son" therefore "Theodorakis" being "little Theodore". Others, less common are: * '''''-atos/-atou''''' (From [[Cephallonia]] and other [[Ionian Islands]] under strong [[Italian language|Italian]] influence); *'''''-as/-a''''' (From [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]]); *'''''-ellis/-elli''''' (From [[Lesbos Island|Lesvos Island]]); *'''''-akos/-akou''''' (From [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] in the [[Laconia]] region) and '''''-eas/-ea''''' (From [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] in the [[Messinia]] region); *'''''-oglou''''' (both genders, a Turkish root ending seen in immigrants from [[Asia Minor]] meaning "son of", i.e. Sarafoglou, "the son of Sarafis"); *'''''-ou''''' (Genitive, from [[Cyprus]]). The suffix '''''-idis'''''(often transliterated ''-ides'' in English and French languages) is the oldest in use. [[Zeus]], for example was also referred to as ''[[Cronides]]'' ("son of [[Cronus]]"). ===Hungary=== {{further|[[Hungarian name]], [[Hungarian language#Name order|Hungarian name order]]}} In [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], like Asian languages but unlike most other European ones (see French and German above for exceptions), the family name is placed before the given names. This usage does not apply to non-Hungarian names, for example "Tony Blair" will remain "Tony Blair" when written in Hungarian texts. Names of Hungarian individuals, however, appear in Western order in English writing. ===Iceland=== {{details|Icelandic name|Naming conventions of Iceland}} In [[Iceland]], most people have no family name; a person's last name is most commonly a [[patronymic]], i.e. derived from the father's first name. For example, when a man called ''Karl'' has a daughter called ''Anna'' and a son called ''Magnús'', their full names will typically be ''Anna Karlsdóttir'' ("Karl's daughter") and ''Magnús Karlsson'' ("Karl's son"). The name is not changed upon marriage. ===India=== {{main|Indian family name}} India is a country with numerous distinct cultures and language groups within it. Thus, Indian surnames, where formalized, fall into seven general types. And many people from the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala do not use any formal surnames, though most have one. In Northern India, most of the people have their family name after the given names, there as in Southern India, the given names come after the family name. *Patronymics and ancestry, where the father's name or an ancestor's given name is used in its original form or in a derived form (e.g. [[Aggarwal]] or Agrawal or Agrawala derived from the ancestor Agrasen). *In Eastern India like '''Odisha''' (formerly Orissa), West Bengal Occupation of ancestors were as per there Surnames (as per Hindu Community) like ''Sethi,Behera,Mallick,Das,Dash,Mohanty,Subudhi,Kar,Dhal,Nayak,Panigrahi,Pattnaik,Mishra,Sahoo,Sahu,Senapati,Prusty,Rath'' etc. *Occupations (Chamar, [[Patel]] or Patil meaning Village Headman, [[Gandhi]], [[Kamath]], Kulkarni, [[Kapadia]], Nadkarni, Patwardhan, Patwari, [[Shenoy]], etc.) and priestly distinctions (Bhat, Bhattar, Trivedi, Chaturvedi, Twivedi, Purohit, Mukhopadhyay) Businesspeople: [[Amin]], [[Shah]]. In addition many [[Parsi]], [[Bohra]] and [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]] families have used English trade names as last names since the 18th and 19th centuries (Contractor, Engineer, Builder). *[[Caste]] or clan names (Pillai, Gounder, Boyar, Parmar, Sindhi, Vaish). Reddy and Naidu are not surnames but suffixes to first names to indicate their clan or caste. *Place names or names derived from places of ancestral origin (Aluru, Marwari, Gawaskar, Gaonkar, Mangeshkar, Kapoor, [[Wamankar]], [[Kokradi]], Karnad). * The father's first name is used as a surname in certain Southern states, such as [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]]. However after the marriage the bride uses her husband's first name instead. *[[Muslim]] surnames, generally following the same rules used in [[Pakistan]]. [[Khan (name)|Khan]] among the most popular, often signifying [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan]]/[[Central Asian]] descent. *Bestowed titles or other honorifics (titles bestowed by kings, rajas, nawabs and other nobles before the British Raj (Wali, Rai, Rao, Tharakan, Panicker, Vallikappen, Moocken, etc.) and those bestowed by the British (Rai, Bahadur). In [[Bengal]], it is also common custom to create hybrid surnames based on the previous last names and new titles (Raichoudhury) *Names indicating nobility or feudal associations or honorifics (Chowdary, Naidu, Varma, Singh, Burman, Raja, [[Reddy]], Tagore, Thakur) *Colonial Surnames based on tax or after religious conversion, particularly in Goa which was under Portuguese control (D'Cruz, Pinto). Often, surnames of Portuguese noble families who were accepted as godparents were used as the surnames of the converted. Some families still keep their ancestral Hindu surnames along with their given Catholic Surnames eg. Miranda-Prabhu and Pereira-Shenoy. The convention is to write the first name followed by middle names and surname. It is common to use the father's first name as the middle name or last name even though it is not universal. In some Indian states like [[Maharashtra]], official documents list the family name first, followed by a comma and the given names. It is customary for wives to take the surname of their husband after marriage. In modern times, in urban areas at least, this practice is not universal. In some rural areas, particularly in North India, wives may also take a new first name after their nuptials. Children inherit their surnames from their father. In some parts of Southern India, no formal surname is used, because the family has decided to forgo its existing clan name. There has been a minor reversal of this trend in the recent times. This practice is prevalent in [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Kerala]]. For example, people from the kongu vellala gounder community of Tamilnadu have in general two titles: the caste title Gounder and the clan name, example Perungudi. Nowadays it is common for people not to use any of these titles. So a Konguvel, son of Shanmuganathan, of say Erode, would call himself Konguvel Shanmughanathan, instead of the traditional Erode Perungudi Konguvel Gounder. This practise is of very recent origin though. Wife or child takes the given name of the husband or father (Usha married Satish, and may therefore be called Usha Satish or simply S. Usha). In many communities, especially Christian, names are formed by the given name as the first name, the family name and house name as the middle name(s) and the father's/husband's given name as the last name. Thus, the last name changes with each generation. The house name would also change as generations move out of their consanguineal family homes with the changing ownership of property upon the death of the patriarch. Jains generally use [[Jain]], [[Shah]], [[Firodia]], [[Singhal]] or [[Gupta]] as their last names. Sikhs generally use the words ''Singh'' ("lion") and ''Kaur'' ("princess") as surnames added to the otherwise unisex first names of men and women, respectively. It is also common to use a different surname after Singh in which case Singh or Kaur are used as middle names ([[Montek Singh Ahluwalia]], Surinder Kaur Badal). The tenth Guru of Sikhism ordered ([[Hukamnama]]) that any man who considered himself a Sikh must use ''Singh'' in his name and any woman who considered herself a Sikh must use ''Kaur'' in her name. Other middle names or honorifics that are sometimes used as surnames include Kumar, Dev, Lal, and Chand. The modern day spellings of names originated when families translated their surnames to English, with no standardization across the country. Variations are regional, based on how the name was translated from the local language to English in the 18th, 19th or 20th centuries during British rule. Therefore, it is understood in the local traditions that Agrawal and Aggarwal represent the same name derived from Uttar Pradesh and Punjab respectively. Similarly, Tagore derives from Bengal while Thakur is from Hindi-speaking areas. The officially-recorded spellings tended to become the standard for that family. In the modern times, some states have attempted at standardization, particularly where the surnames were corrupted because of the early British insistence of shortening them for convenience. Thus Bandopadhyay became Banerji, Mukhopadhay became Mukherji, Chattopadhyay became Chatterji etc. This coupled with various other spelling variations created several surnames based on the original surnames. The [[West Bengal]] Government now insists on re-converting all the variations to their original form when the child is enrolled in school. Some parts of [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Indonesia]] have similar patronymic customs as that of India. ===Indonesia=== Indonesians comprise more than 300 ethnic groups. Not all of these groups traditionally have surnames. Nonetheless, Indonesians are well aware of the custom of family names, which is known as "''Marga''", or "''Fam''", and such names have become a specific kind of identifier. People can tell what a person's heritage is by his or her surname. * The various ethnicities of [[Batak people]] from North Sumatra are known for their strict tradition of preserving their family names, which are actually clan names. See [[Marga (Batak)]] for details. * The clan names of the [[Minangkabau]] people are passed down from mothers to their children. Minangkabau is the largest matrilineal society in the world. * The [[Minahasan]] people of the North Sulawesi have an extensive list of surnames, such as Muntuan, Nayoan, Wenas and Luntungan. * [[Ambonese]] people of the Maluku Islands have family names such as Lawalata, Matulessy and Latumahina. * The various ethnicities of the [[Dayak people]] from the provinces in [[Kalimantan]] have names such as Dau and Narang. * The [[Bugis]] people from South Sulawesi have surnames such as Mappanyukki, Mallarangeng and Matalatta. [[Java (island)|Javanese]] people are the majority in Indonesia, and most do not have any surname. There are many individuals who have only name, such as "[[Suharto]]" and "[[Sukarno]]". These are not only common with the Javanese but also with ethnic groups who do not have the tradition of surnames. If, however, they are Muslims, they might opt to follow [[Arabic name| Arabic naming]] customs. ===Scotland and Ireland=== {{details|Irish name}} Many surnames in Ireland of [[Irish language|Gaelic]] origin derive from ancestors' names, [[nicknames]], or descriptive names. In the first group can be placed surnames such as ''McMurrough'' and ''McCarthy'', derived from patronymics, or ''O'Brien'' and ''O'Grady'', derived from ancestral names. Gaelic surnames derived from nicknames include ''[[Dowd|Ó Dubhda]]'' (from Aedh ua Dubhda - Aedh (pronounced Hugh), the dark one), ''O'[[Doherty]]'' (from ''dochartaigh'', "destroyer" or "obtrusive"), ''Garvery'' (''garbh'', "rough" or "nasty"), ''Manton'' (''mantach'', "toothless"), ''Bane'' (''bán'', "white", as in "white hair"), ''Finn'' (''fionn'', "fair", as in "fair hair"), and ''Kennedy'' (''cinnéide'', "ugly head"). In contrast to [[England]], very few Gaelic surnames are derived from placenames or venerated people/objects. Among those that are included in this small group, several can be shown to be derivations of Gaelic personal names or surnames. One notable exception is ''Ó Cuilleáin'' or [[O'Collins]] (from ''cuileann'', "[[Holly]]") as in the Holly Tree, considered one of the most sacred objects of pre-Christian Celtic culture. Another is Walsh ([[irish language|Irish]]: ''Breatnach''), meaning [[Welsh people|Welsh]]. In areas where certain family names are extremely common, extra names are added that sometimes follow this archaic pattern. In [[Ireland]], for example, where ''Murphy'' is an exceedingly common name, particular Murphy families or extended families are nicknamed, so that [[Denis Murphy]]'s family were called ''The Weavers'' and Denis himself was called ''Denis "The Weaver" Murphy''. (See also [[O'Hay]].) For much the same reason, nicknames (e.g. the ''Fada Burkes'', "the long/tall ''Burkes''"), father's names (e.g. ''John Morrissey Ned'') or mother's maiden name (''Kennedy'' becoming ''Kennedy-Lydon'') can become colloquial or legal surnames. The Irish family of de Courcy Ireland became so-named to distinguish them from their cousins who moved to France in the 17th and 18th centuries. In addition to all this, Irish speaking areas still follow the old tradition of naming themselves after their father, grandfather, great-grandfather and so on. Examples include ''Mike Bartly Pat Reilly'' ("Mike, son of Bartholomew, son of Pat Reilly"), ''John Michel John Oge Pat Breanach'' ("John, son of Michael, son of young John, son of Pat Breanach"), ''Tom Paddy-Joe Seoige'' ("Tom, son of Paddy-Joe Seoige"), and ''Mary Bartly Mike Walsh'' ("Mary, daughter of Bartly, son of Mike Walsh"). Sometimes, the female line of the family is used, depending on how well the parent is known in the area the person resides, e.g. ''Paddy Mary John'' ("Paddy, son of Mary, daughter of John"). A similar tradition continues even in English-speaking areas, especially in rural districts. Some Irish surnames can be mistaken for non-Irish. Anglicization of many surnames has been so thorough that bona-fide Irish names such as ''Crockwell'' and ''Harrington'' appear to be English. Other Irish names can appear to be German (''Bruder''), Italian (''Costello''), or even Polish (''Comiskey''). ====Surname prefixes==== * ''Bean'': "Wife", {{pronounced|bæn̺}}. * ''De'': "of the": a [[Norman language|Norman-French]] habitational prefix used by some of the most common Irish surnames among which are De Búrca, De Brún, De Barra, De Cíosóg, Devane and de Faoite. 'De' historically has signaled ownership of lands and was traditionally therefore a mark of prestige. * ''Mac'': for most purposes, taken to mean "son of", as in Mac Néill (son of Neil). However, literally, the "of" part does not come from the "Mac" prefix but from the patronymic that follows it. E.g., in the case of MacNéill, Mac merely means "son", "Néill" (meaning "of Neil") is the genitive form of Niall ("Neil"). In some cases if the second word begins with a vowel ''Mac'' then becomes ''Mag'', as in Mag Eocháin. * ''Mhic'': {{pronounced|vɪkʲ}}. Compressed form of ''bean mhic'' ("wife of the son of") eg ''Máire Mhic Néill'' (Máire, the wife of Mac Néill). This is the grammatically correct form of the prefix ''Mac'' always taken by a woman after marriage (i.e. a woman marrying someone of the surname ''Mac Néill'' would become ''Mhic Néill''). ''Mhig'' (also pronounced {{IPA|[vɪkʲ]}}) is used similarly to ''Mag'' in some cases (e.g. ''Mag Shamhráin/Mhig Shamhráin''). * ''Maol'': In Pagan times this was expressed as ''Mug'', as in the case of [[Mug Nuadat]]. The literal expression of this is "slave of ''Nuada''", i.e. "devotee of ''Nuada''". In the [[Christian]] era the word ''Mael'' was used in its place for given names such as ''Mael Bridget'', ''Mael Padraig'', ''Mael Lagan'', ''Mael Sechlainn'', and ''Mael Martain''. In later times, some of these given names evolved into surnames, e.g. ''Ó Máel Sechlainn'' and ''Mac Mael Martain'' or ''Mael Lagan'', which became after the 15th Century the name [[Milligan]]. * ''Fitz'': a [[Norman language|Norman-French]] word derived from the [[Latin]] word ''filius'' ("son"). It was used in [[patronymic]]s by thousands of men in the early [[Normans|Norman]] period in [[Ireland]] (e.g. ''fitz Stephen'', ''fitz Richard'', ''fitz Robert'', ''fitz William'') and only on some occasions did it become used as an actual surname, the most famous example being the ''[[FitzGerald]]'' [[Earl of Kildare|Earls of Kildare]]. Yet well into the 17th and 18th century it was used in certain areas dominated by the [[Old English (Ireland)|Old English]] of [[Ireland]] in its original form, as a [[patronymic]]. [[The Tribes of Galway]] were especially good at conserving this form, with examples such as ''John fitz John Bodkin'' and ''Michael Lynch fitz Arthur'', used even as late as the early 1800s. A number of illegitimate members of the British royal family were given surnames which indicated their illegitimacy: some of the illegitimate children of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] were named ''FitzCharles'' or ''FitzRoy'' ("son of the King"); those of [[James II of England|King James II]] were named ''FitzJames''; those of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|Prince William, Duke of Clarence and St Andrews]] (later King William IV) were named ''FitzClarence''. Note that "Fitzpatrick" is not Norman: it is actually a Normanisation of the Gaelic surname ''Mac Ghiolla Phádraig''. * ''Ó'': In Old Irish as ''ua'' ("grandson", "descendant"). E.g., the ancestor of the [[O'Brien]] [[clan]], [[Brian Boru]] (937-1014) was known in his lifetime as ''Brian mac Cennéide mac Lorcán '' ("Brian, the son of ''Cennéide'', the son of ''Lorcán'' "). Not until the time of his grandsons and great-grandsons was the name ''[[O'Brien]]'' used as a surname, used to denote descent from an illustrious [[ancestor]]. It has for some three hundred years been written as ''O<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', but in recent years the apostrophe is often dropped, bringing it into line with early medieval forms. The apostrophe came into existence as an error by the English, when in the process of anglicizing the surnames in Ireland, mistakenly recognized the accent above the O as an apostrophe. * ''Uí'': This is the plural of ''Ó'' and is used in reference to a kin-group or clan, e.g. ''Uí Néill'', in reference to the ''O'Neill'' clan. It is {{pronounced|i}}. * ''Ní'': This is used for women instead of ''Ó'' before a surname and comes a shortened form of the Irish word for a daughter, e.g. ''Máire Ní Bhriain'' ("Mary O'Brien"). * ''Nic'': This is used for women instead of ''Mac'', but only if this is their maiden name, never their married name. Compressed form of ''iníon mhic'' ("daughter of the son of/Mac…"), e.g. ''Máire Nic Charthaigh'' ("Mary, daughter of McCarthy"). ''Nig'' ({{pronounced|nɪkʲ}}) is used in cases where the surname uses ''Mag'' e.g. ''Nig Shamhráin''. ===Iranian/Persian=== <!-- Other pages link here, so please don't change the heading unless you also check and update them --> Persian personal names may have single or multiple surname elements and appear on title pages as follows: Affixes are: i, ian, deh, dust, fard, far, ju, iya, nia, nizhad (or nejad), oo, par, parast, pour, rad, vand, vard, yar, zadeh, zad, zand Sometimes name of cities or towns are attached as the last word in the family name such as: Tehrani, Shirazi, Esfahani, Tabrizi, Zanjani, Angurani, Samani, Farahani Some common Persian last names are: Afsar, Agassi, Alivandi, Alizadeh, Amanpour, Ansari, Anvari, Ariani, Arki, Ashtari, Azria, Bahari, Bahrami, Bakhtiari, Bateni, Bozorgi, Dashti, Ebadi, Emami, Fakoor, Farahani, Feiz, Firozi, Gharani, Gharibpour, Ghasemi, Hosseini, Kalbasi, Karimi, Kashani, Kiani, Kiyanfar, Kiyanpour, Loghmani, Mehranzadeh, Mirzapour, Motallebzadeh, Najafi, Nakhudeh, Niyazfar, Omidifar, Ovisi, Rabiee, Rahimi, Rastinpour, Rezaei, Rouzrokh, Samani, Sarafpour, Sattari, Soltanzadeh, Souriani, Talebi, Teymourian, Yazdani, Zahedi, Zandi, Zandipour, [[Esfahan]]i, [[Milani]], [[Shiraz]]i and [[Tehran]]i. Most, but not all last names that end in "ian" and sometimes "yan" are traditionally Persian last names. Armenian last names can also contain ian, but does not mean that they have to be Persian however they still hold the Persian suffix, "ian". This is the same for "-stan" which is a Persian noun-maker suffix used for country names such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, etc. which comes from Persian meaning "land" or "province" ([[Provinces of Iran|Ostan]] in Persian). In the old traditional Persian culture the wife did not take on the husband's surname. Although she kept her name, her husband's surname was used when she was referred to or addressed directly in a formal setting. ===Italy=== {{Seealso|Category:Italian surnames}} {{main|Italian name#Surnames}} [[Italy]] has around 350,000 surnames. Most of them derive from the following sources: [[patronym]] or [[ilk]] (e.g. ''Francesco di Marco'', "Francis, son of Mark" or ''[[Eduardo de Filippo]]'', "Edward belonging to the family of Philip"), occupation (e.g. ''[[Enzo Ferrari]]'', "Enzo the Smith"), personal characteristic (e.g. nicknames or pet names like ''Dario Forte'', "Darius the Strong"), geographic origin (e.g. ''Elisabetta Romano'', "Elisabeth from Rome") and objects (e.g. ''Carlo Sacchi'', "Charles Bags"). The two most common Italian family names, ''Russo'' and ''Rossi'', mean the same thing, "Red", possibly referring to a hair color that would have been very distinctive in Italy. Both Western and Eastern orders are used for full names: the given name usually comes first, but the family name may come first in formal or administrative settings; lists are usually indexed according to the last name. Women usually keep their surname when married but may also be addressed with the surname of the husband, especially when they become [[widow]]s. Sometimes both surnames are written (the proper first), usually separated by ''in'' (e.g. ''Giuseppina Mauri in Crivelli''). A woman using only her birth surname may add a ''giovane'' to the name (e.g. ''Mauri giovane'') to indicate clearly that it is not her husband's name. In a recently proposed law, a child may receive the surname of either the mother or the father. ===Lithuania=== Lithuanian names follow the Slavic distinction between male and female suffixes of names, although the details are different. Male surnames usually end in ''-as'', ''-is'', ''-ius'', or ''-us'', whereas the female versions change these suffixes to ''-aitė, -ytė, -iūtė,'' and ''-utė'' respectively (if unmarried) or ''-ienė'' (if married). About 70 % of Lithuanians have names of Polish or another Slavic origin, which are made to conform to Lithuanian by changing the final ''-ski'' to ''-skas'', such as ''Sadauskas'', with the female version being ''-skienė''. ===Malta=== Due to different cultures that had their impacts on the Maltese archipelago, several surnames were acquired. *'''[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] & [[Italian language|Italian]] Surnames:''' Sicilian and Italian surnames are common due to the close vicinity to Malta. Examples include ''Bonello'', ''[[Camilleri]]'', ''Cauchi'', ''Chetcuti'', ''Dalli'', ''Darmanin'', ''Farrugia'', ''Giglio'', ''[[Gauci]]'', ''Delicata'', ''Licari'', ''Magri'', ''Rizzo'', ''Schembri'', ''Tabone'', ''Troisi'', ''Vassallo'', etc. *'''[[English language|English]] Surnames''' English surnames exist due to Malta forming a part of the British Empire in the 19th century and most of the 20th. Examples include ''Bickle'', ''Haidon'', ''Harmsworth'', ''Atkins'', ''Mattocks'', ''Martin'', ''Wallbank'', ''Smith'', ''Jones'', ''Sixsmith'', ''Woods'', ''Turner'', ''Henwood''. *'''[[Siculo-Arabic|Sicilian Semitic]] Surnames:''' Semitic surnames are common, due to the early presence of Eastern and Southern Mediterranean people in Malta. Examples include ''Sammut'', ''Zammit'', ''Said'', ''Borg'', ''Xuereb'', ''Xerri'', ''Grixti'', ''Xriha'', although the last three are also written in a Italianized form, i.e. ''Scerri'', ''Griscti'', ''Sciriha'', due to Maltese being written in the Italian alphabet in the 19th century. *'''[[Spanish language|Spanish]] Surnames''' Spanish surnames exist too. Two common surnames are ''Calleja'' and ''Galdes'' and less common surnames are ''Enriquez'', ''Herrera'', ''Guzman'', ''Inguanez'', ''Carabez''. A variant of ''Galdes'' exists and is ''Galdies'', with only one family possessing it. *'''[[Greek language|Greek]] Surnames:''' Such as ''Papagiorcopoulo'', ''Dacoutros'', ''Vasilopoulos'', ''Vasilis'', ''Trakosopoulos'' *'''[[French language|French]] Surnames:''' Such as ''Depuis'', ''Montfort''. *'''[[Algerian language|berbere]] Surnames:''' ''Zerafa'' *'''[[German language|German]] Surnames:''' Surnames from foreign countries from Middle Ages include German ones such as ''von Brockdorff'', ''Engerer'', ''Hyzler'', ''Schranz'', ''Craus'', ''[[Fenech]]'' * '''[[Hebrew|Jewish]] Surnames:''' The Jews have also left a relic of their presence on the island with the surnames of ''Abela'', ''Ellul'', ''[[Azzopardi]]'' and ''Cohen''. *'''Double Surnames:''' Some Maltese women, in order to preserve a rare surname from becoming extinct after marriage, add their maiden surname to their husband's. Sometimes, it becomes a sign of social status. These include: ''Spiteri-Gonzi'', ''Fleri Soler'', ''Mifsud-Bonnici'', ''Sammut-Alessi'', ''Sammut-Testaferrata'', ''Cachia-Zammit'', ''Caruana Curran'', ''Vella-Maistre'', ''Zarb Cousin'', ''Fenech-Adami'', ''Borg Olivier'', ''Sant Fournier''. *'''Surnames showing places in Malta''' The few original Maltese surnames are those which show places of origin, for example, ''Chircop'' ([[Kirkop]]), ''Lia'' ([[Lija]]), ''Balzan'' ([[Balzan]]), ''Valletta'' ([[Valletta]]), ''Sciberras'' (Xebb ir-Ras Hill, on which Valletta was built) and possibly ''Curmi'' from [[Qormi]]. The village of [[Munxar]], [[Gozo]] is characterised by the majority of its population having one from two surnames, either ''Curmi'' or ''de Brincat''. In Gozo, the surname ''Bajada'' is also very common. *'''Foreign Minority Surnames''' Recently, due to asylum seekers from third world countries, new family names have been created. An example is ''Nwoko'', following the naturalisation of footballer [[Chucks Nwoko]]. Others include ''Okoh'', ''Ohaegbu'', ''Yekoko'', ''Stefanov'', ''Bogdanovic'', ''Giorev'', ''Mohammed'', ''Abu Shala'', ''Abu Shamala''. *'''Customs''' Women take a man's surname upon marriage, and their name is written as: ''Maria Borg ''née'' Zammit'' in official documents, but only as ''Maria Borg'' in informal scenarios. However some celebrities retain their old name as a stage name. Generally children take the surname of their father, but some are given the name of their mother, either alone or combined to their father's. The custom to address a family is to use the initial and surname of the male and refer also to the family. For example, if a letter is sent to a person named David Saliba and his family, one writes ''Mr. and Mrs. D. Saliba''. Except for the new surnames from foreign countries, and sometimes the long, combined and rare ones, generally the Maltese people do not give a lot of importance to the origins of their surnames, and cohabit hand in hand. *'''Some Maltese surnames''' Some examples of surnames from Malta are: *'''A:''' Abdilla; Abela; Agius; Anastasi; Ancilleri; Apap; Aquilina; Arpa; Arrigo; Asciak; Attard; Axisa; Azzopardi *'''B:''' Bajada; Baldacchino; Balzan; Barbara; Barbaro; Bartolo; Bencini; Bezzina; Bickle; Bilocca; Bisazza; Boffa; Bonanno; Bonavia; Bonello; Bonnici; Bontempo; Borg; Briffa; Brincat; Bruno; Bugeja; Buhagiar; Busuttil; Buttigieg *'''C:''' Cachia; Calamatta; Calì; Calleja; Callus; Camenzuli; Camilleri; Cannataci; Carabott; Caruana; Casha; Cassar; Cauchi; Cefai; Chetcuti; Chircop; Ciantar; Ciappara; Cilia; Cini; Coleiro; Coppini; Cortis; Cremona; Cucciardi; Cumbo; Curmi; Cuschieri; Cutajar *'''D:''' Dalli; Dalmas; D'Amato; Darmanin; Debattista; Debono; Debrincat; Decelis; Degabriele; Degiovanni; Deguara; Delia; Delicata; Demanuele; Demicoli; Desira; Diacono; Dimech; Dingli *'''E:''' Ebejer; Ellul; Esposito *'''F:''' Falzon; Farrugia; Fava; Fenech; Ferriggi; Filletti; Fleri Soler; Formosa; Francalanza; Frendo; Friggieri; Fsadni *'''G:''' Gafa'; Galdes; Galea; Gambin; Gatt; Gauci; Gerada; Ghigo; Ghirxi; Gonzi; Grech; Grillo; Grima; Griscti; Grixti; Gusman *'''H:''' Haber; Herrera; Hili; Hyzler *'''I:''' Imbroll; Incorvaia; Inglott *'''L:''' Laferla; Lanfranco; Lautier; Lewis; Lia *'''M:''' Magri; Magro; Mahoney; Mallia; Mamo; Manduca; Mangion; Marmara; Massa; Meilak; Meli; Mercieca; Micallef; Mifsud; Mintoff; Mizzi; Montebello; Montalto; Mugliett; Mula; Muscat; Musumeci *'''N:''' Nani; Naudi *'''P:''' Pace; Padovani; Palmier; Parascandolo; Paris; Parnis; Pavia; Penza; Pirotta; Pisani; Piscopo; Portelli; Privitelli; Psaila; Pule'; Pulis; Pullicino *'''Q:''' Quattromani; Quintano *'''R:''' Rapa; Rapinett; Refalo; Rizzo *'''S:''' Sacco; Said; Saidon; Salerno; Saliba; Sammut; Sant; Sapiano; Sapienza; Savona; Scerri; Sceberras; Schembri; Schiavone; Sciberras; Scicluna; Scriha; Seguna; Seychell; Spagnol; Spina; Spiteri; Stivala; Suda; Sultana *'''T:''' Tabone; Tanti; Tedesco; Testa; Theuma; Tonna; Trapani ;Troisi *'''V:''' Valletta; Vassallo; Vella *'''X:''' Xerri; Xuereb *'''Z:''' Zahra; Zammit; Zarb; Zerafa; Zrinzo ===Mongolia=== {{main|Mongolian name}} Mongolians do not use surnames in the way that most Westerners, Chinese or Japanese do. Since the socialist period, [[patronymic]]s - then called ''ovog'', now called ''etsgiin ner'' - are used instead of a surname. If the father's name is unknown, a [[matronymic]] is used. The patro- or matronymic is written before the given name. Therefore, if a man with given name Tsakhia has a son, and gives the son the name Elbegdorj, the son's full name is Tsakhia Elbegdorj. Very frequently, the patronymic is given in [[genitive]] case, i.e. Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj. However, the patronymic is rather insignificant in everyday use and usually just given as initial - Ts. Elbegdorj. People are normally just referred to and addressed by their given name (Elbegdorj ''guai'' - Mr. Elbegdorj), and if two people share a common given name, they are usually just kept apart by their initials, not by the full patronymic. Since 2000, Mongolians have been officially using [[clan name]]s - ''ovog'', the same word that had been used for the patronymics before - on their IDs. Many people chose the names of the ancient clans and tribes such [[Borjigin]], [[Besud]], [[Jalair]], etc. Also many extended families chose the names of the native places of their ancestors. Some chose the names of their most ancient known ancestor. Some just decided to pass their own given names (or modifications of their given names) to their descendants as clan names. Some chose or other attributes of their lives as surnames. [[Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa|Gürragchaa]] chose Sansar (Cosmos). Clan names precede the patronymics and given names, i.e. Besud Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj. <ref>[http://www.mongoleiservice.de/mongolei__gesellschaft/mongolei__gesellschaft.html Hans Peter Vietze: Mongolische Namen (in German)</ref> In practice, these clan names seem to have had no really significant effect, and are not even included in Mongolian passports. ===Pakistan=== {{main|Pakistani name|List of Pakistani family names}} [[Pakistan]]i surnames are basically divided in three categories: [[Pakistani name|Arab naming convention]], tribal names and ancestral names. Muslim surnames include those of [[Arab]] heritage, e.g. [[Shaikh]], [[Siddiqui]], [[Abbasi]], [[Syed]], [[Farooqi]], [[Osmani]], [[Alavi]], [[Hassani]], [[Hussaini]], and [[Suhrawardi]]. People claiming [[Afghan]] ancestry include those with family names [[Khan]], [[Cheema]], [[Suri]] etc. Family names indicating [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] heritage include [[Mughal]], [[Chughtai]] , [[Mirza]], [[Baig]] or [[Beg]], [[Pasha]], and [[Barlas]]. People claiming [[India]]n ancestry include those with family names [[Barelwi]], [[Lakhnavi]], [[Delhvi]], [[Bilgrami]] etc. People claiming [[Iran]]ian ancestry include those with family names [[Agha]], [[Firdausi]], [[Ghazali]], [[Hamadani]], [[Isfahani]], [[Kashani]], [[Kermani]], [[Khorasani]], [[Mir]], [[Montazeri]], [[Nishapuri]], [[Noorani]], [[Kayani]], [[Qizilbash]], [[Saadi]], [[Sabzvari]], [[Shirazi]], [[Sistani]], [[Yazdani]], [[Zahedi]], and [[Zand]]. Tribal names include [[Abro]] [[Afaqi]], [[Afridi]], [[Amini]], [[Ashrafkhel]], [[Awan]], [[Bajwa]], [[Baloch]], [[Barakzai]], [[Baranzai]], [[Bhatti]], [[Bhutto]],[[Ranjha]], [[Bijarani]], [[Bizenjo]], [[Brohi]], [[Bugti]], [[Butt (tribe)|Butt]], [[Detho]], [[Gabol]], [[Ghaznavi]], [[Ghilzai]], [[Gichki]], [[Jakhrani]], [[Jamali]], [[Jamote]], [[Janjua]], [[Jatoi (tribe)|Jatoi]],|Jutt]] [[Joyo (tribe)|Joyo]], [[Junejo]], [[Karmazkhel]], [[Kayani]], [[Khan (name)|Khan]], [[Khar]], [[Khattak]], [[Khuhro]], [[Lakhani]], [[Leghari]], [[Lodhi]], [[Magsi]], [[Malik]], [[Mandokhel]]([[MAYO]], [[Marwat]], [[Mengal]], [[Mughal]] , [[Palijo]], Paracha,[[Panhwar]], [[Popalzai]], [[Qureshi]], [[Rabbani]], [[Raisani]], [[Rakhshani]], [[Soomro]], [[Sulaimankhel]], [[Talpur]], [[Talwar]], [[Thebo]], [[Yousafzai]], and [[Zamani]]. In Pakistan the official paperwork format regarding personal identity is as follows; So and so, son of so and so, of such and such caste and religion and resident of such and such place. For example, Amir Khan s/o Fakeer Khan, caste Mughal Kayani or Chauhan Rajput, Follower of religion Islam, resident of Village Anywhere, Tehsil Anywhere, District. A large number of [[Rajput]] converts to [[Islam]] have retained their [[surnames]] such as [[Chauhan]] ,[[Rathore]], [[Parmar]], [[Janjua]], [[Bargujar]], etc. === The Philippines === Until the middle of the 19th century, there was no standardization of surnames in the Philippines. There were native Filipinos without surnames, others whose surnames deliberately did not match that of their families, as well as those who took certain surnames simply because they had a certain prestige, usually ones dealing with the Roman Catholic religion, such as de los Santos and de la Cruz. In 1849, Governor-general Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa decreed an end to these arbitrary practices, the result of which was the [[Catálogo Alfabético de Apellidos]] ("Alphabetical Inventory of Surnames"). The book contained many words coming from Spanish and the Philippine languages such as Tagalog and many Basque surnames, such as Zuloaga or Aguirre. In practice, the application of this decree varied from municipality to municipality. Some municipalities received only surnames starting with a particular letter. For example, the majority of residents of the island of Banton in the province of Romblon have surnames starting with F such as Fabicon, Fallarme, Fadrilan, and Ferran. Thus, although there perhaps a majority of Filipinos have Spanish surnames, such a surname does not always indicate Spanish ancestry. The vast majority of Filipinos follow a naming system which is the reverse of the Spanish one. Children take the mother's surname as their middle name, followed by their father's as their surname; for example, a son of Juan de la Cruz and his wife Maria Agbayani may be David Agbayani de la Cruz. Women take the surnames of their husband upon marriage; so upon her marriage to David de la Cruz, the full name of Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg would become Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg de la Cruz. There are other sources for surnames. Many Filipinos also have Chinese-derived surnames, which in some cases could indicate Chinese ancestry. Many Hispanicised Chinese numerals and other Hispanicised Chinese words, however, were also among the surnames in the Catálogo Alfabético de Apellidos. For those whose surname may indicate Chinese ancestry, analysis of the surname may help to pinpoint when those ancestors arrived in the Philippines. A hispanicised Chinese surname such as Cojuangco suggests an 18th-century arrival while a Chinese surname such as Lim suggests a relatively recent immigration. Some Chinese surnames such as Tiu-Laurel are composed of the immigrant Chinese ancestor's surname as well as the name of that ancestor's godparent on receiving Christian baptism. In the predominantly Muslim areas of the southern Philippines, adoption of surnames was influenced by connexions to that religion, its holy places, and prophets. As a result, surnames among Filipino Muslims are largely Arabic-based, and include such surnames as Hassan and Haradji. There are also Filipinos who, to this day, have no surnames at all, particularly if they come from indigenous cultural communities. ====Unique Spanish family names in the Philippines==== Prior to the establishment of the Philippines as a US territory during the earlier part of the 20th century, Filipinos usually followed Iberian naming customs. However, upon the promulgation of the Family Code of 1987, Filipinos begin to adopt the American system of using their surnames. A common Filipino name will consist of the given name (mostly 2 given names are given), the initial letter of the mother's maiden name and finally the father's surname (i.e. Lucy Anne C. de Guzman). Also, women are allowed to retain their maiden name or use both her and her husband's surname, separated by a dash. This is common in feminist circles or when the woman hold a prominent office (e.g. [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]], Miriam Defensor-Santiago). In more traditional circles, especially those who belong to the prominent families in the provinces, the custom of the woman being addressed as Mrs. Husband's Full Name is still common. For widows, who chose to marry again, two norms are in existence. For those who were widowed before the Family Code, the full name of the woman remains while the surname of the deceased husband is attached. That is, Maria Andres, who was widowed by Ignacio Dimaculangan will have the name Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan. If she chooses to marry again, this name will still continue to exist while the surname of the new husband is attached. That, if Maria marries Rene de los Santos, her new name will be Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan de los Santos. However, a new norm is also in existence. The woman may choose to use her husband's surname to be one of her middle names. Thus, Maria Andres viuda de Dimaculangan de los Santos may also be called Maria A.D. de los Santos. Children will however automatically inherit their father's surname if they are considered legitimate. If the child is born outside wedlock, the mother will automatically pass her surname to the child, unless the father gives a written acknowledgment of paternity. The father may also choose to give the child both his parents' surnames if he wishes (that is Gustavo Paredes, whose parents are Eulogio Paredes and Juliana Angeles, while having Maria Solis as a wife, may name his child Kevin S. Angeles-Paredes. In some Tagalog regions, the norm of giving patronyms, or in some cases matronyms, are also accepted. These names are of course not official, since family names in the Philippines are inherited. It is not uncommon to refer to someone as Juan anak ni Pablo (John, the Son of Pablo) or Juan apo ni Teofilo (John, the grandson of Theophilus). ===Romania=== In [[Romania]], like in most of [[Europe]], a child inherits his father's family name, and a wife takes her husband's last name. There are however exceptions and social pressure to follow this tradition is not particularly strong in most families. Until the 19th century, the names were primarily of the form "[given name] [father's name] [grandfather's name]". The few exceptions are usually famous people or the nobility (boyars). The name reform introduced around 1850, had the names changed to a western style, most likely imported from France, consisting of a given name followed by a family name. As such, the name is called ''prenume'' (French ''prénom''), while the family name is called ''nume'' or, when otherwise ambiguous, ''nume de familie'' ("family name"). Although not mandatory, middle names (Romanian ''numele mic'', literally, "small name") are common. Historically, when the family name reform was introduced in the mid 19th century, the default was to use a [[patronym]], or a [[matronym]] when the father was dead or unknown. The typical derivation was to append the suffix ''-escu'' to the father's name, e.g. ''Anghelescu'' ("''Anghel's'' child") and ''Petrescu'' ("''Petre's'' child"). (The ''-escu'' seems to come both from [[Old Slavonic]] ''-ьскъ'' and/or from Latin ''-iscum'', thus being cognate with Italian ''-esco'' and French ''-esque''.) The other common derivation was to append the suffix ''-eanu'' to the name of the place of origin, especially when one came from a different region, e.g. ''Munteanu'' ("from the mountains") and ''Moldoveanu'' ("from ''Moldova''"). These uniquely Romanian suffixes strongly identify ancestral nationality. There are also descriptive family names derived from occupations, nicknames, and events, e.g. ''Botezatu'' ("baptised"), ''Barbu'' ("bushy bearded"), ''Prodan'' ("foster"), ''Bălan'' ("blond"), ''Fieraru'' ("smith"), ''Croitoru'' ("taylor"). Romanian family names remain the same regardless of the sex of the person. Although given names appear before family names in most Romanian contexts, official documents invert the order, ostensibly for filing purposes. Correspondingly, Romanians often introduce themselves with their family names first, especially in official contexts, e.g. a student signing a test paper in school. Romanians bearing names of non-Romanian origin often adopt Romanianised versions of their ancestral surnames, such as ''Jurovschi'' for Polish ''Żurowski'', which preserves the original pronunciation of the surname through transliteration. In other cases, as with Romanians of Hungarian origin, these changes were often mandated by the state, as was the practice during the period of communist rule<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/romania.htm Romanian Uprising and Coup]</ref>. ==By region== ===Cultures of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam=== {{further|[[Chinese surname]], [[Korean name#Family names|Korean family name]], [[Japanese name]], and [[Vietnamese name]]}} In [[China|Chinese]], [[Japan|Japanese]], [[Korea|Korean]], [[Taiwan|Taiwanese]] and [[Vietnam|Vietnamese]] cultures, the family name is placed before the given names. So the terms "first name" and "last name" are generally not used, as they do not in this case denote the given and family names. Chinese family names have many types of origins, dating back as early as pre-[[Qin Dynasty|Qin]] era: *from the land or state that one lived in or awarded: [[Chen (surname)|Chen 陳]] after the [[Chen (state)|state of Chen]], [[Cai (surname)|Cai 蔡]] after the state of Cai; *from the given name or [[Posthumous name]] of one's ancestor: [[Zhuang (surname)|Zhuang 莊]] after [[King Zhuang of Chu]]; *from the [[Chinese nobility|nobility status]] or [[officer status]] of one's ancestor: [[Wang (surname)|Wang 王]] (a king) or [[Shi (surname)|Shi 史]] (a history-recording officer); *and some other origins. In history, some changed their surnames due to a [[naming taboo]] (from Zhuang 莊 to [[Yan (surname)|Yan 嚴]] during the era of [[Emperor Ming of Han|Liu Zhuang 劉莊]]) or as an award by the Emperor([[Li (surname)|Li]] was often to senior officers during [[Tang Dynasty]]). In modern days, some Chinese adopt a Western given name in addition to their original given names, e.g. Lee Chu-ming (李柱銘) adopted the Western name ''Martin'', which can often be used as a nickname of Chu-ming. The adopted Western name can be put in front of their Chinese name, e.g. ''[[Martin Lee Chu-ming|Martin L<small>EE</small> Chu-ming]]''. In addition, many people with Chinese names have non-Chinese first names which are commonly used. Sometimes, the Chinese name becomes used as a "middle name", e.g. ''Martin Chu-ming Lee'', or even used a "last name", e.g. ''Lee Chu-ming Martin''. Chinese names used in Western countries may be rearranged when written to avoid misunderstanding, e.g. ''cellist [[Yo-Yo Ma]]''. However, some well-known Chinese names remain in the traditional order even in English literature, e.g. ''[[Mao Zedong]]'', ''[[Yao Ming]]''(Note that the name on the back of Yao Ming's NBA jersey is "Yao," rather than "Ming," as the former is his family name). Vietnamese and Korean names are generally stated in East Asian order (family name first) even when writing in English. In English writings originating from non-English cultures (e.g. English newspapers in China), the family name is often written with all capital letters to avoid being mistaken as a middle name, e.g. ''Laurence Yee-ming KWONG'' or using small capitals, as ''Laurence K<small>WONG</small> Yee-ming'' or with a comma, as ''[[Ryūnosuke Akutagawa|AKUTAGAWA, Ryūnosuke]]'' to make clear which name is the family name. Such practice is particularly common in mass-media reporting international events like the [[Olympic Games]]. [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html The CIA World Factbook] stated that ''"The Factbook capitalizes the surname or family name of individuals for the convenience of [their] users who are faced with a world of different cultures and naming conventions".'' For example, ''[[Leslie Cheung|Leslie Cheung Kwok Wing]]'' might be mistaken as Mr. Wing by readers unaware of Chinese naming conventions. Vietnamese family names present an added complication. Like Chinese family names, they are placed at the beginning of a name, but unlike Chinese names, they are not usually the primary form of address. Rather, people will be referred to by their given name, usually accompanied by an honorific. For example, [[Phan Van Khai]] is properly addressed as ''Mr. Khai'', even though ''Phan'' is his family name. This pattern contrasts with that of most other East Asian naming conventions. In Japan, the civil law forces a common surname for every married couple, unless in a case of international marriage. In most cases, women surrender their surnames upon marriage, and use the surnames of their husbands. However, a convention that a man uses his wife's family name if the wife is an only child is sometimes observed. A similar tradition called ''ru zhui'' (入贅) is common among Chinese when the bride's family is wealthy and has no son but wants the heir to pass on their assets under the same family name. The Chinese character ''zhui'' (贅) carries a money [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] (貝), which implies that this tradition was originally based on financial reasons. All their offspring carry the mother's family name. If the groom is the first born with an obligation to carry his own ancestor's name, a compromise may be reached in that the first male child carries the mother's family name while subsequent offspring carry the father's family name. The tradition is still in use in many Chinese communities outside of [[mainland China]], but largely disused in China because of social changes from communism. Due to the economic reform in the past decade, accumulation and inheritance of personal wealth made a come back to the Chinese society. It is unknown if this financially motivated tradition would also come back to mainland China. In Cantonese, Chinese, Korean, Singaporean, and [[Taiwanese culture|Taiwanese]] cultures, women keep their own surnames, while the family as a whole is referred to by the surnames of the husbands. In Hong Kong, some women would be known to the public with the surnames of their husbands preceding their own surnames, such as [[Anson Chan|Anson Chan Fang On Sang]]. Anson is an English given name, On Sang is the given name in Chinese, Chan is the surname of Anson's husband, and Fang is her own surname. A name change on legal documents is not necessary. In [[Macau]], some people have their names in Portuguese spelt with some [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] style, such as [http://carlos.com.hk/carlos.htm Carlos do Rosario Tchiang]. Chinese women in [[Canada]], especially [[Hongkonger]]s in [[Toronto]], would preserve their [[maiden name]]s before the surnames of their husbands when written in English, for instance Rosa Chan Leung, where Chan is the maiden name, and Leung is the surname of the husband. In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Taiwanese]], and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], surnames are predominantly monosyllabic (written with one [[hanzi|character]]), though a small number of common [[Chinese compound surname|disyllabic (or written with two characters) surnames]] exists (e.g. the Chinese name ''Ouyang'', the Korean name ''Jegal'' and the Vietnamese name ''Phan-Tran''). Many [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Taiwanese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] surnames are of the same origin, but simply pronounced differently and even transliterated differently overseas in Western nations. For example, the common Chinese and Taiwanese surnames Chen, Chan, Chin, Cheng and Tan, the Korean surname Jin, as well as the Vietnamese surname Trần are often all the same exact character 陳. The common Korean surname Kim is also the common Chinese and Taiwanese surname Jin, and written 金. The common Mandarin surnames Lin or Lim (林) is also one and the same as the common Cantonese or Vietnamese surname ''Lam'' and Korean family name Lim(written/pronounced as Im in [[Korean phonology|South Korea]]). Interestingly, there are people with the surname of Hayashi(林) in Japan too. The common Taiwanese surname 李, translated to English as Lee, is, in Chinese, the same character but translated as Li. Lee is also a common surname of Koreans, and the character is identical. ===Scandinavia=== In [[Scandinavia]] family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. In [[Sweden]], the patronymic ending is -''son'', e.g. ''Karlsson'' ("Karl's son"). In [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]], the corresponding ending is -''sen'', as in ''Karlsen''. Names ending with ''dotter/datter'' (daughter), such as ''Olofsdotter'', are rare but occurring, and only apply to females. Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father doesn't have to be called Karl if he or she has the surname Karlsson. Before the 19th century there was the same system in Scandinavia as in Iceland today. Noble families, however, as a rule adopted a family name, which could refer to a presumed or real forefather (e.g. Earl [[Birger Magnusson]] ''[[Folkung]]e''{{Fact|date=September 2007}} <!-- He was never named like that during his lifetime. -->) or to the family's [[coat of arms]] (e.g. King [[Gustav Vasa|Gustav Eriksson]] ''[[House of Vasa|Vasa]]''). In many surviving family noble names, such as ''Silfversparre'' ("silver-sparrow") or ''Stiernhielm'' ("star-helmet"), the spelling is obsolete, but since it applies to a name, remains unchanged. Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and town dwellers, adopted names in a similar fashion to that of the nobility. Family names such as the Swedish ''Bergman'', ''Holmberg'', ''Lindgren'', ''Sandström'' and ''Åkerlund'' were quite frequent and remain common today. The same is true for similar Norwegian and Danish names. Even more important a driver of change was the need, for administrative purposes, to develop a system under which each individual had a "stable" name - a name that followed the person from birth till the end. In the old days, people would be known by their name, patronymic and the farm they lived at. This last element would change if a person got a new job, bought a new farm, or otherwise came to live somewhere else. (This is part of the origin, in this part of the world, of the custom of women changing their names upon marriage. Originally it indicated, basically, a change of address, and there are numerous examples of men doing the same thing). The many patronymic names may derive from the fact that people who moved from the country to the cities, also gave up the name of the farm they came from. As a worker, you passed by your father's name, and this name passed on to the next generation as a family name. [[Einar Gerhardsen]], the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[prime minister]], used a true patronym, as his father was named Gerhard Olsen (Gerhard, the son of Ola). Gerhardsen passed his own patronym on to his children as a family name. This has been common in many [[working class]] families. The tradition of keeping the farm name as a family name got stronger during the first half of the 20th century in Norway. These names often indicated the place of residence of the family. For this reason, Denmark and Norway have a very high incidence of names derived from those of farms, many signified by the suffixes like ''-bø'', ''-rud'', ''-stuen'', ''-løkken'' or even more predominantly -''gaard'' -- the modern spelling is ''gård'' in Danish and has changed to ''gard'' in Norwegian, but as in Sweden, archaic spelling persists in surnames. The most well-known example of this kind of surname is probably ''[[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]]'' (original meaning: ''the farm located by the Church'' or also ''churchyard'' and ''cemetery'' [although this is unlikely in the context] which, with ''kierke'', actually includes two archaic spellings), but many others could be cited. It should also be noted that, since the names in question are derived from the original owners' domiciles, the possession of this kind of name is no longer an indicator of affinity with others who bear it. In many cases, names were taken from the nature around them. In Norway, for instance, there is an abundancy of surnames based on coastal geography, with suffixes like ''-strand'', ''-øy'', ''-holm'', ''-vik'', ''-fjord'' or ''-nes''. A family name such as ''Dahlgren'' is derived from "dahl" meaning valley and "gren" meaning branch; or similarly ''Upvall''<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upvall_family</ref> meaning "upper-valley"; It depends on the Scandinavian country, language, and dialect. ===Basque Country=== {{details|Basque surnames}} ===Slavic countries=== Slavic countries are noted for having masculine and feminine versions for many (but not all) of their names. Most of their surnames have suffixes which are found to varying degrees over the different nations. (Of course, many other names do not have suffixes at all.) Note: the following list does not take regional spelling variations into account. * ''-ov / -ev (-ova/-eva)'': Russia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Serbia, Croatia (sometimes as ''-iv''); this has been adopted by many non-Slavic peoples of Central Asia who are or have been under Russian rule, such as the Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, etc. Note that ''-ev'' is the soft form of ''-ov'', found after palatalized consonants or sibilants. In English, ''-ev'' is also erroneously written after ''ch'', even though it is pronounced ''-ov'' (Gorbuchev, Khrushchev, etc.) * ''-sky (-ska), -ski (-ska), -skiy (-skaya)'': Poland, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Russia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Macedonia. * Note that these first two can be combined: ''-ovsky'' (''-ovska''): Belarus, Czechy, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine. * ''-ich, -vich, -ovich'': ex-Yugoslavia (Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia), Belarus, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Russia. Yugoslav ex.: Petrović, means Petar's son. In Russia, where patronyms are used, a person would have two ''-(ov)ich'' names in a row; first the patronym, then the family name (see [[Shostakovich]]). * ''-in (-ina)'': Russia, Serbia * ''-ko, -nko, -enko'': Ukraine, Belarus * ''-ak/-ek/-ik (-akova/-ekova/-ikova)'': Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Belarus, Slovenia, Croatia * ''-uk, -yuk'': Ukraine, Belarus If the name has no suffix, it may or may not have a feminine version. Sometimes it has the ending changed (such as the addition of ''-a''). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, suffixless names, such as those of [[German language|German]] origin, are feminized by adding ''-ová'' (for example, ''Schusterová''), but this is not done in neighboring Poland, where feminine versions are ''only'' used for ''-ski'' (''-ska'') names (this includes ''-cki'' and ''-dzki'', which are in fact ''-ski'' preceded by a ''t'' or ''d'' respectively). ====Czechia==== Names of [[Czechs|Czech people]] consist of [[given name]] (''rodné jméno'') and [[surname]] (''příjmení''). Usage of the second or middle name is not common. Females' names are usually derived from males' ones by a suffix ''-ová'' (''Nováková'') or ''-á'' for names being originally adjectives (''Veselá''), sometimes with a little change of original name's ending (''Sedláčková'' from ''Sedláček'' or ''Svobodová'' from ''Svoboda''). Women change their family names when they get married. Deriving women's names from foreigners' names is often problematic since foreign names do not suit [[Czech language]] rules. The family names are usually [[noun]]s (''Svoboda'', ''Král'', ''Růžička''), [[adjective]]s (''Novotný'', ''Černý'', ''Veselý''), [[verb]]s in a past tense of the third person (''Pospíšil'') or they mean nothing particular (''Dvořák'', ''Beneš''). There is also a couple of names with more complicated origin which are actually complete sentences (''Skočdopole'', ''Hrejsemnou'' or ''Vítámvás''). The most common Czech family name is ''Novák'' / ''Nováková''. ====Russia==== A full [[Russians|Russian]] name consists of personal (given) name, patronymic, and family name (surname). Most Russian family names originated from patronymics, that is, father's name usually formed by adding the adjective suffix ''-ov(a)'' or ''-ev(a))''. Contemporary patronymics, however, have a substantive suffix ''-ich'' for masculine and the adjective suffix ''-na'' for feminine. For example, the proverbial triad of most common Russian surnames follows: *''Ivan'''ov''''' (son of Ivan), *''Petr'''ov''''' (son of Petr), *''Sidor'''ov''''' (son of Sidor). Feminine forms of these surnames have the ending ''-a'': *''Ivanov'''a''''' (daughter of Ivan), *''Petrov'''a''''' (daughter of Petr), *''Sidorov'''a''''' (daughter of Sidor). Such a pattern of name formation is not unique to Russia or even to the Eastern and Southern Slavs in general; quite common are also names derived from professions, places of origin, and personal characteristics, with various suffixes (e.g. ''-in(a)'' and ''-sky (-skaia)''). Professions: * ''kuznets'' ([[Smith (metalwork)|smith]]) → ''Kuznetsov''—''Kuznetsova'' * ''portnoi'' ([[tailor]]) → ''Portnov''—''Portnova'' * ''pastukh'' ([[shepherd]]) → ''Pastukhov''—''Pastukhova''. Places of origin: * ''Moskva'' ([[Moscow]]) → ''Moskvin''—''Moskvina'', * ''Smolensk'' → ''Smolensky''—''Smolenskaia'', * ''Riazan'' → ''Riazanov''—''Riazanova''. Personal characteristics: * ''tolsty'' (stout, fat) → ''Tolstov''—''Tolstova'', ''Tolstoy''—''Tolstaya'', * ''nos'' (nose) → ''Nosov''—''Nosova'', * ''sedoi'' (grey-haired or -headed) → ''Sedov''—''Sedova''. A considerable number of “artificial” names exists, for example, those given to seminary graduates; such names were based on [[Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church]] or Christian virtues. Great Orthodox Feasts: * ''rozhdestvo'' (Christmas) → ''Rozhdestvensky''—''Rozhdestvenskaia'', * ''voskresenie'' (Resurrection) → ''Voskresensky''—''Voskresenskaia'', * ''uspenie'' (Assumption) → ''Uspensky''—''Uspenskaia''. Christian virtues: * ''philagathos'' (one who loves goodness) → ''Dobrolubov''—''Dobrolubova'', ''Dobrolubsky''—''Dobrolubskaia'', * ''philosophos'' (one who loves wisdom) → ''Lubomudrov''—''Lubomudrova'', * ''theophilos'' (one who loves God) → ''Bogolubov''—''Bogolubova''. Many freed serfs were given surnames after those of their former owners. For example, a serf of the [[Demidov]] family might be named ''Demidovsky'', which translates roughly as "belonging to Demidov" or "one of Demidov's bunch". Grammatically, Russian family names follow the same rules as other nouns or adjectives (names ending with ''-oy'', ''-aya'' are grammatically adjectives), with exceptions: some names do not change in different cases and have the same form in both genders (for example, ''Sedykh'', ''Lata''). ====Poland==== {{main|Polish surnames|Polish name}} In [[Poland]] and most of the former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], surnames first appeared during the late Middle Ages. They initially denoted the differences between various people living in the same town or village and bearing the same name. The conventions were similar to those of English surnames, using occupations, patronymic descent, geographic origins, or personal characteristics. Thus, early surnames indicating occupation include ''Karczmarz'' ("innkeeper"), ''Kowal'' ("blacksmith"), and ''Bednarczyk'' ("young cooper"), while those indicating patronymic descent include ''Szczepaniak'' ("Son of ''Szczepan''), ''Józefowicz'' ("Son of ''Józef''), and ''Kaźmirkiewicz'' ("Son of ''Kazimierz''"). Similarly, early surnames like ''Mazur'' ("the one from [[Masuria|Mazury]]") indicated geographic origin, while ones like ''Nowak'' ("the new one"), ''Biały'' ("the pale one"), and ''Wielgus'' ("the big one") indicated personal characteristics. In the early 16th century, ( the [[Polish Renaissance]]), toponymic names became common, especially among the [[szlachta|nobility]]. Initially, the surnames were in a form of "[first name] ''de'' ("z", "of") [location]". Later, most surnames were changed to adjective forms, e.g. ''Jakub Wiślicki'' ("James of [[Wiślica]]") and ''[[Zbigniew Olesnicki|Zbigniew Oleśnicki]]'' ("''Zbigniew'' of [[Olesnica|Oleśnica]]"), with masculine [[suffix (linguistics)|suffix]]es ''-ski'', ''-cki'', ''-dzki'' and ''-icz'' or respective feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', ''-dzka'' and ''-icz'' on the east of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Names formed this way are adjectives grammatically, and therefore change their form depending on gender; for example, ''Jan Kowalski'' and ''Maria Kowalska'' collectively use the plural ''Kowalscy''. Names with masculine suffixes ''-ski'', ''-cki'', and ''-dzki'', and corresponding feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', and ''-dzka'' became associated with noble origin. Many people from lower classes successively changed their surnames to fit this pattern. This produced many ''Kowalski''s, ''Bednarski''s, ''Kaczmarski''s and so on. Today, although most Polish speakers do not know about noble associations of ''-ski, ''-cki'', ''-dzki'' and ''-icz'' endings, such names still sound somehow better to them. A separate class of surnames derive from the names of [[szlachta|noble clans]]. These are used either as separate names or the first part of a [[double-barrelled name]]. Thus, persons named ''Jan Nieczuja'' and ''Krzysztof Nieczuja-Machocki'' might be related. Similarly, after [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], many members of [[Polish Underground State|Polish underground organizations]] adopted their [[nom de guerre|war-time pseudonyms]] as the first part of their surnames. ''Edward Rydz'' thus became [[Marshal of Poland]] ''[[Edward Smigly-Rydz|Edward Śmigły-Rydz]]'' and ''Zdzisław Jeziorański'' became ''[[Jan Nowak-Jezioranski|Jan Nowak-Jeziorański]]''. ====South Slavs==== Surnames of some [[South Slavs|South Slavic]] groups such as [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], [[Montenegrins]], and [[Bosniaks]] traditionally end with the suffixes "-ić" and "-ović" (often transliterated to English and other western languages as "ic", "ich", "ovic" or "ovich") which are a diminutive indicating descent i.e. "son of." Noted exception from patronymic rule was a family name of prominent 19th century Serbia family Babadudić from Baba (literally, granny) Duda. In some cases family name was derived from a profession (e.g. blacksmith - "Kovač" → "Kovačević"). In general family names in all of these countries follow this pattern with some family names being typically Serbian, some typically Croat and yet others being common throughout the whole linguistic region. Children usually inherit fathers family name. In older naming convention which was common in [[Serbia]] up until mid 19th century a persons name would consist of three distinct parts persons given name, patronymic derived from father's personal name and the family name, as seen in for example in the name of language reformer [[Vuk Stefanović Karadžić]]. Official family names do not have distinct male or female forms. Somewhat archaic unofficial form of adding suffixes to family names to form female form exists, with ''-eva'', implying "daughter of" or "female descendant of" or ''-ka'', implying "wife of" or "married to". [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] Muslim names follow the same formation pattern but are usually derived from proper names of Islamic origin, often combining archaic Islamic or feudal Turkish titles i.e. Mulaomerović, Šabanadžović, Hadžihafisbegović etc. Also related to Turkish influence is prefix ''Hadži-'' found in some family names. Regardless of religion, this prefix was derived from the honorary title which a distinguished ancestor eared by making a pilgrimage to either [[Christian]] or Islamic holy places. Hadžibegić, being Bosniak Muslim example. In [[Croatia]] where tribal affiliations persisted longer, [[Lika]], [[Herzegovina]] etc., original family name came to signify practically all people living in one area or holding of the nobles. The [[Šubić]] family owned land around the [[Zrin River]] in the Central Croatian region of [[Banovina]]. The surname became [[Šubić Zrinski]], the most famous being [[Nikola Šubić Zrinski]]. Due to discriminatory laws in [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] some of Serb families of [[Vojvodina]] have discarded suffix -''ić'' in an attempt to mask their ethnicity and avoid heavy taxation. Among the [[Bulgarians]], another South Slavic people, the typical surname suffix is "-ov" (Ivanov, Kovachev), although other popular suffixes also exist. In the [[Republic of Macedonia]], the most popular suffix today is "-ski". {{further|[[Bulgarian name]]}} ====Ukraine and Belarus==== Ukrainian and Belarusian names evolved from the same [[Old East Slavic]] and [[Ruthenian language]] (western [[Rus’]]) origins. Ukrainian and Belarusian names share many characteristics with family names from other Slavic cultures. Most prominent are the shared root words and suffixes. For example, the root ''koval'' (blacksmith) compares to the Polish ''[[Kowalski|kowal]]'', and the root ''bab'' (woman) is shared with Polish, Slovakian, and Czech. The suffix ''-vych'' (son of) corresponds to the South Slavic ''-vic'', the Russian ''-vich'', and the Polish ''-wicz'', while ''-sky'', ''-ski'', and ''-ska'' are shared with both Polish and Russian, and ''-ak'' with Polish. However some suffixes are more uniquely characteristic to Ukrainian and Belarusian names, especially: ''-chuk'' ([[Western Ukraine]]), ''-enko'' (all other Ukraine) (both son of), ''-ko'' (little [masculine]), ''-ka'' (little [feminine]), ''-shyn'', and ''-uk''. See, for example, Ukrainian Presidents [[Leonid Kravchuk]], and [[Viktor Yushchenko]], Belarusian President [[Alexander Lukashenko]], or former Soviet diplomat [[Andrei Gromyko]]. ===Burundi/Rwanda=== In Burundi and Rwanda, most, if not all surnames have God in it, for example Hakizimana (meaning God cures), Nshimirimana (I thank God) or Havyarimana/Habyarimana (God gives birth). But not all surnames end with the suffix -imana. Irakoze is one of these. (technically meaning Thank God, though it is hard to translate it correctly in English or probably any other languages.) ===Eritrea/Ethiopia=== {{see also|Habesha name}} The patronymic custom in most of [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]] gives children the father's first name as their surname. The family then gives the child its first name. Middle names are unknown. So, for example, a person's name might be ''Demesie Birhanu''. In this case, ''Demesie'' is the first name and ''Birhanu'' is the surname, and also the first name of the father. The paternal grandfather's name is often used if there is a requirement to identify a person further, for example, in school registration. Also, different cultures and tribes use as the family's name the father's or grandfather's given name. For example, some Oromos use Warra Ali to mean families of Ali, where Ali, is either the householder, a father or grandfather. In Ethiopia, the customs surrounding the bestowal and use of family names is as varied and complex as the cultures to be found there. There are so many cultures, nations or tribes, that currently there can be no one formula whereby to demonstrate a clear pattern of Ethiopian family names. In general, however, Ethiopians use their father's name as a surname in most instances where identification is necessary, sometimes employing both father's and grandfather's names together where exigency dictates. ==By ethnic group== ===Jewish=== {{main|Jewish name}} Jewish names have historically varied, encompassing throughout the centuries several different traditions ===Kurdish=== The majority of Kurds do not hold Kurdish names because the names have been banned in the countries they primarily live in (namely [[Iran]], [[Turkey]] and [[Syria]]). Kurds in these respective countries tend to hold Turkish, Persian or Arabic names, in the majority of cases, forcefully appointed by the ruling governments.<ref>http://ohchr.org/english/issues/minorities/docs/12/YASA_Kurdish_Centre_for_Legal_Studies_Consultancy.doc</ref> Others hold Arabic names as a result of the influence of Islam and Arab culture. Kurds holding authentic Kurdish names are generally found in Diaspora or in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] where Kurds are relatively free. Traditionally, Kurdish family names are inherited from the tribes of which the individual or families are members. However, some families inherit the names of the regions they are from. Common affixes of authentic Kurdish names are "i" and "zade". Some common Kurdish last names, which are also the names of their respective tribes, include Baradost, Barzani, Berwari, Berzinji, Chelki, Diri, Doski, Jaf, Mutki, Rami, Rekani, Rozaki, Sindi, Tovi and Zebari. Other names include Akreyi, Alan, Amedi, Botani, Hewrami, Kurdistani (or Kordestani), Mukri, and Serhati. Traditionally, Kurdish women did not inherit a man's last name. Although still not in practice by many Kurds, this can be more commonly found today. ===Tibet=== Tibetan people are often named at birth by the parents, by a local Buddhist Lama or they may request a name from the Dalai Lama. They are often given two names, but they do not have a family name. Therefore all members of the family will have different names eg. Sonam Gyatso, Lhamo Drolma, Tenzin Choden etc. They may change their name throughout life if advised by a Buddhist Lama, for example if a different name removes obstacles. The Tibetans who enter monastic life take a name from their ordination Lama, which will be a combination of the Lama's name and a new name for them. ===North Caucasian Adyghe Family Surnames=== In the case of Circassians, especially [[Adyge]]s and [[Kabardian]]s, hereditary surnames have been borne by people for thousand of years. All Circassian people belong to a Clan. Most surnames of Adyge origin fall into six types: * Occupations (e.g., ''Smith'', ''Hunter'', ''Taylor'' etc.) * Personal characteristics (e.g., ''Short'', ''deaf'', ''beautiful'') * Geographical features (e.g., ''Hill'', ''River'', ''cave'', ''Wood'', ''Fields'' etc.) * Animal Names (e.g., ''Bear'', ''Horse'', ''snake'',''Fox'', ''Wild boar'' etc.) * [[Patronymics]] and ancestry, often from a male's given name ''son of.....”) or from an ethnic name (e.g., ''Shapsug'', ''Kabardey'') * Religious names (e.g., Shogen ''Priest'', Yefendi ''Efendi'', Mole ''Mullah'') "Shogen" comes from the Christian era and "Yefendi" and "Mole" come from the Muslim era. In Circassian culture, women even when they marry, do not change their surnames. By keeping their surnames and passing that it on to the next generation, children come to distinguish relatives from the maternal side and respect her family as well as those from their father's side. On the other hand, children cannot marry someone who bears the same surname as they do no matter how distantly related. In the Circassian tradition, the formula for surnames is patterned to mean “daughter of ...” Abkhaz families follow similar naming patterns reflecting the common roots of the Abkhazian, Adygean and Wubikh peoples. Circassian family names cannot be derived from women's names and of the name of female ancestors. ==See also== {{wiktionarypar|Appendix:Names}} * [[Surname map]] * [[List of most common surnames]] * [[Family name etymology]], [[German family name etymology]] * [[Family name affixes]] * [[List of common Chinese surnames]] * [[Family history]] * [[Patronymic]] * [[Personal name]] * [[Nickname]] * [[Maiden name]] * [[Legal name]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== *''[http://www.ancestry.com/learn/facts/default.aspx Family Facts Archive], [[Ancestry.com]], including UK & US census distribution, immigration, and surname origins (''Dictionary of American Family Names'', [[Oxford University Press]]'') * ''[http://www.ipl.org/div/pf/entry/48533 Comprehensive surname information and resource site]'' * ''[http://genealogy.about.com/library/surnames/bl_meaning.htm Glossary of Surname Meanings & Origins]'' * ''[http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/inbreeding.html Inbreeding and genetic distance between hierarchically structured populations measured by surname frequencies]'' *''[http://italia.indettaglio.it/eng/cognomi/cognomi.html Italian Surnames], free searchable online database of Italian surnames''. * ''[http://www.genealogytoday.com/names/origins/ Information on surname history and origins]'' * ''[http://www.one-name.org/ Guild of One-Name Studies]'' *''[http://www.mydanishroots.com/surnames/in_denmark.html Surnames in Denmark - Naming Traditions, Meaning, and Origin]'' *''[http://jeantosti.com/indexnoms.htm Dictionnaire des noms de famille de France et d'ailleurs], French surname dictionary'' *''[http://www.notrefamille.com/ NotreFamille.com], distribution of surnames in [[France]] from 1891''. *''[http://www.nationaltrustnames.org.uk/ National Trust Names - Distribution of surnames in Great Britain in 1881 and 1998]'' *''[http://www.goireland.com/genealogy/html/surname_search.htm Irish Surname origins], MacLysaght'' * ''[http://www.shtetlinks.jewishgen.org/Kolomea/nameorigin.htm History of Jewish family Names]'' * ''[http://www.polishroots.org/surnames/surnames_endings.htm Short explanation of Polish surname endings and their origin]'' *''[http://www.amlwchdata.co.uk/welsh_names_and_meaning.htm Welsh surnames and their meaning]'' [[Category:Surnames| ]] [[Category:Names]] [[Category:Naming conventions]] {{Link FA|vi}} [[br:Anv-familh]] [[ca:Cognom]] [[cs:Příjmení]] [[da:Efternavn]] [[de:Familienname]] [[es:Apellido]] [[eo:Familia nomo]] [[fr:Nom de famille]] [[gl:Apelido]] [[zh-classical:姓]] [[hr:Prezime]] [[id:Marga]] [[it:Cognome]] [[he:שם משפחה]] [[lt:Pavardė (asmenvardis)]] [[hu:Vezetéknév]] [[nl:Achternaam]] [[ja:姓]] [[no:Etternavn]] [[nn:Slektsnamn]] [[nds:Familiennaam]] [[pl:Nazwisko]] [[pt:Sobrenome]] [[ru:Фамилия]] [[simple:Family name]] [[sk:Priezvisko]] [[fi:Sukunimi]] [[sv:Efternamn]] [[te:ఇంటి పేర్లు]] [[th:นามสกุล]] [[vi:Họ]] [[uk:Прізвище]] [[wa:No d' famile]] [[zh-yue:姓]] [[zh:姓氏]]