Fascism 11054 226169237 2008-07-17T03:35:02Z 72.66.109.89 /* Political spectrum */ {{fascism_expanded}} '''Fascism''' is a term used to describe [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] political ideologies or mass movements that are concerned with notions of cultural decline or decadence and seek to achieve a [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] national rebirth by exalting the [[nation]] or [[race (classification of human beings)|race]], and promoting cults of unity, strength and purity.<ref name="Paxton">Robert O. Paxton, ''The Anatomy of Fascism'', page 218. Knopf, 2004</ref><ref>Roger Griffin, ''Nature of Fascism'', New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991, p. xi</ref><ref name="Passmore">Kevin Passmore, ''Fascism: A Very Short Introduction'', page 31. Oxford University Press, 2002</ref><ref>"fascism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Apr. 2008 <http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9117286></ref><ref>Walter Laqueur, ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future'', Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 150</ref> Fascists promote a type of national unity that is usually based on (but not limited to) [[Ethnicity|ethnic]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[nation]]al, [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]], and/or [[religion|religious]] attributes. Various scholars attribute different characteristics to fascism, but the following elements are usually seen as its integral parts: [[patriotism]], [[nationalism]], [[statism]], [[militarism]], [[totalitarianism]], [[anti-communism]], [[economic planning]] (including [[corporatism]] and [[autarky]]), [[populism]], [[collectivism]], [[autocracy]] and anti-liberalism (i.e., opposition to [[liberalism|political]] and [[economic liberalism]]).<ref>[[Roger Eatwell|Eatwell, Roger]]. 1996. ''Fascism: A History.'' New York: Allen Lane. </ref><ref>[[Roger Griffin|Griffin, Roger]]. 1991. ''The Nature of Fascism''. New York: St. Martin’s Press. On "populism, see p. 26: "Fascism is a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism".</ref><ref>[[Ernst Nolte|Nolte, Ernst]] ''The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism National Socialism'', translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965. </ref><ref>[[Robert Paxton|Paxton, Robert O]]. 2004. ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 1-4000-4094-9</ref><ref>[[Stanley Payne|Payne, Stanley G]]. 1995. ''A History of Fascism, 1914-45''. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0-299-14874-2</ref><ref>"populism," See: Fritzsche, P. 1990. ''Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and political mobilization in Weimar Germany''. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.</ref><ref>"collectivism." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. [[12 January]] [[2007]] <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024764> "Collectivism has found varying degrees of expression in the 20th century in such movements as socialism, communism, and fascism."; Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21; De Grand, Alexander. Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development. U of Nebraska Press. p. 147 "Nationalism, statism, and authoritarianism culminated in the cult of the Duce. Finally, collectivism was important...Despite general agreement on these four themes, it was hard to formulate a definition of fascism..."</ref> Some authors reject broad usage of the term or exclude certain parties and regimes.<ref>Griffiths, Richard ''Fascism''. (Continuum, 2005), 91-136. ISBN 0-8264-8281-3</ref> Following the defeat of the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]], there have been few self-proclaimed fascist groups and individuals. In contemporary political discourse, the term [[Fascist (epithet)|''fascist'']] is often used by adherents of some ideologies as a pejorative description of their opponents. ==Etymology== The term ''fascismo'' was brought into popular usage by the Italian founders of Fascism, [[Benito Mussolini]] and the [[Absolute idealism#Neo-Hegelianism|Neo-Hegelian]] philosopher [[Giovanni Gentile]].<ref>{{cite book | last = New World | first =Websters | title = Webster's II New College Dictionary| publisher =Houghton Mifflin Reference Books| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=OL60E3r2yiYC&pg=PA415&dq=fascismo+fascio&sig=ACfU3U0GjGSAC9nr1oc9xOaW3pAVXexS5g | isbn =0618396012}}</ref> It is derived from the [[Italian language|Italian]] word ''[[fascio]]'', which means "bundle" or "union", and from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''[[fasces]]''. <ref name="paynee">{{cite book | last = Payne | first =Stanley | title =A History of Fascism, 1914-45| publisher =University of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&dq=A+History+of+Fascism+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 | isbn =0299148742}}</ref> The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods tied around an axe, were an [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] symbol of the authority of the civic [[magistrate]]s; they were carried by his [[Lictor]]s and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command.<ref name="paynee">{{cite book | last = Payne | first =Stanley | title =A History of Fascism, 1914-45| publisher =University of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&dq=A+History+of+Fascism+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 | isbn =0299148742}}</ref> Furthermore, the symbolism of the fasces suggested ''strength through unity'': a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.<ref>{{cite book | last =Doordan | first =Dennis P| title =In the Shadow of the Fasces: Political Design in Fascist Italy| publisher =The MIT Press| url =http://www.jstor.org/pss/1511586 | isbn =0299148742}}</ref> This is a familiar theme throughout different forms of fascism; for example the [[Falange]] symbol is a bunch of arrows joined together by a [[yoke]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Parkins | first =Wendy | title =Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship| publisher =Berg Publishers| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=DjUc4r87w7wC&pg=PA178&dq=the+yoke+and+arrows&sig=ACfU3U0jj_4cVT9mN7EBOdAwyLv5OhsCnA | isbn =1859735878}}</ref> ==Definitions== {{Main|Definitions of fascism|Fascism and ideology}} The popular concepts of what Fascism is, as presented in the publications of the [[Anglosphere]], are radically different in the period after [[World War II]] than the period between 1919—1939 where the Fascists of Italy and Mussolini were given wide acclaim.<ref name="pound">{{cite news|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=My2rlb0bnx0C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22I+am+no+superman+like+Mussolini%22&source=web&ots=UlaTM7Nm67&sig=YW9AV1oyMNjUgc96AgDvJtup2sM&hl=en|publisher=Leon Surette|title=Pound in Purgatory|date=[[27 January]] 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LcvGAAAACAAJ&dq=A+History+of+Us:+War,+Peace+and+all+that+Jazz|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=A History of US: Book 9: War, Peace, and All That Jazz 1918-1945|date=[[27 January]] 2008}}</ref> As the [[Axis powers]] lost the war, and the Anglosphere was mostly represented within the [[Allied powers]] for many years it was difficult to provide a neutral view of the topic and so historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism.<ref name="pheonix">{{cite book | last =Gregor | first =A. James | title =Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time| publisher =Transaction Publishers| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=EIJXYCBFqnUC&pg=PA6&dq=%22extreme+right%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U2gCeyCXuMJAei133LkOS3xan-HZw | isbn =0765808552}}</ref> However since the 1990s, with the smoke of post-war [[propaganda]] clearing, scholars have began to gather a rough consensus on the systems core tenets, noted proponents include [[Stanley Payne|Payne]], [[Hamish MacDonald|MacDonald]], [[Roger Griffin|Griffin]], [[Nicholas Farrell|Farrell]] and [[Robert O. Paxton|Paxton]]. ===Political spectrum=== The place of fascism on the [[political spectrum]] remains a particularly debated subject. Fascism in practise opposed both socialism and communism, but on the other side it also opposed [[capitalism]] and [[classical liberalism]]. Many scholars accept fascism as a search for a [[Third Way]] between these fields.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bastow| first =Steve | title =Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century| publisher =Edinburgh University Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=0J9DpxWxi14C&pg=PA93&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&sig=ACfU3U21wyLLZwse3dYoyA7aXJoN9cYUsw | isbn =074861561X}}</ref><ref name="macdonal">{{cite book | last = Macdonald | first =Hamish | title =Mussolini and Italian Fascism| publisher =Nelson Thornes| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g | isbn =0748733868}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Woolley | first =Donald Patrick| title =The Third Way: Fascism as a Method of Maintaining Power in Italy and Spain| publisher =University of North Carolina at Greensboro| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=SjOyGwAACAAJ&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Heywood | first =Andrew | title =Key Concepts in Politics| publisher =Palgrave| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g | isbn =0312233817}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Renton| first =Dave | title =Fascism: Theory and Practice| publisher =Pluto Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Ojtn0IT6LpgC&pg=PA28&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U29w491Co0j3H4s72KUCvx_36hSIQ | isbn =0745314708}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Kallis| first =Aristotle A | title =The Fascism Reader| publisher =Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=tP2wXl5nzboC&pg=PA33&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr=&sig=ACfU3U049ZN8MGgXE7O87P1E2rKYDdUGnQ | isbn =0415243599}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Griffin| first =Roger | title =The Nature of Fascism| publisher =Palgrave Macmillan| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=fcn5ZtaPc7oC&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr= | isbn =0312071329}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Parla| first =Taha | title =The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp, 1876-1924| publisher =Brill| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=63weAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA113&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U22B0TsrgAkF0dKzH-tGewY7I5n2g | isbn =9004072292}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Durham| first =Martin | title =Women and Fascism| publisher =Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=yA1Y5znKY1sC&pg=PA4&dq=%22third+way%22+fascism+eatwell&lr=&sig=ACfU3U00G6DB4k2NLWe5EMGpvsNKqyq5tA | isbn =0415122805}}</ref> [[Sir Oswald Mosley]] leader of the [[British Union of Fascists]] for example, chose to self-describe his position as "hard centre" on the political spectrum.<ref>{{cite book | last =Skidelsky | first =Robert Jacob Alexander | title =Oswald Mosley| publisher =Holt, Rinehart and Winston| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Xv2pAwKeX10C&q=mosley+%22hard+centre%22&dq=mosley+%22hard+centre%22&lr=&pgis=1 | isbn =0030865808}}</ref> Scholar [[A. James Gregor]] asserts that the most "uninspired effort to understand fascism" is to simply place it on the right-wing, or the [[radical right]] as the common tendancy was in the Anglosphere during the post-war period.<ref name="pheonix">{{cite book | last =Gregor | first =A. James | title =Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time| publisher =Transaction Publishers| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=EIJXYCBFqnUC&pg=PA6&dq=%22extreme+right%22+fascism&lr=&sig=ACfU3U2gCeyCXuMJAei133LkOS3xan-HZw | isbn =0765808552}}</ref> [[Walter Laqueuer]] notes that historical fascism: "did not belong to the extreme Left, yet defining it as part of the extreme Right is not very illuminating either." and that it "was always a coalition between radical, populist ('fascist') elements and others gravitating toward the extreme Right" <ref>Laqueur, Walter[http://books.google.com/books?id=fWggQTqioXcC&dq Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p. 13 p.223 1996 Oxford University Press]</ref> The original founders of Fascism were made up of people who were previously [[socialists]], [[syndicalists]], military men and [[anarchists]] but had become dishearted and decided to form a new movement; [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Michele Bianchi]] and [[Dino Grandi]] were all previously socialists.<ref>{{cite book | last =Gregor | first =A. James | title =A Place in the Sun: Marxism and Fascism in China's Long Revolution| publisher =Westview Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=bmIJNq5dUp8C&dq=dino+Grandi++left+wing | isbn =0813337828}}</ref> The two biggest difference between the movements, is that fascism rejects the idea of [[Class conflict|class war]] in favor of [[class collaboration]],<ref>{{cite book | last = Counts| first =George Sylvester|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=U2saJs2cuXsC&pg=PA70&dq=%22class+collaboration%22+fascism&sig=ACfU3U3hEGDZGYOj-UOVa6sbFDLvpj3RWw|publisher= Ayer Publishing|title=Bolshevism, Fascism, and Capitalism: An Account of the Three Economic Systems| isbn = 0836918665}}</ref> while also rejecting socialist internationalism in favor of [[statist]] [[nationalism]].<ref name="gentile">{{cite book | last = Gregor| first =A. James|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile|publisher=Transaction Pub|title=Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism| isbn = 0765805936}}</ref> Various attempts to define Fascism have been made, the problem scholars often run into is that each form of fascism is different to each other, leaving many definitions as too wide or too narrow.<ref name="deff">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =Fascism, Comparison and Definition| publisher =Univ of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=HvqRDWVyIcEC&pg=PP1&dq=Fascism:+Comparison+and+Definition&sig=ACfU3U2PvGk1srTFtkrtu-wGsKah2kilaw#PPA4,M1| isbn =0299080641}}</ref><ref name="intelligentguide">{{cite book | last =Griffiths | first =Richard | title =An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism| publisher =Duckworth| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Y668AAAACAAJ&dq=Griffiths,+Richard+Fascism | isbn =0715629182}}</ref> Below are two examples of attempts to define Fascism, in a concise, to the point form; {{Quotation|[Fascism is] a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti conservative nationalism. As such it is an ideology deeply bound up with modernization and modernity, one which has assumed a considerable variety of external forms to adapt itself to the particular historical and national context in which it appears, and has drawn a wide range of cultural and intellectual currents, both left and right, anti-modern and pro-modern, to articulate itself as a body of ideas, slogans, and doctrine. In the inter-war period it manifested itself primarily in the form of an elite-led "armed party" which attempted, mostly unsuccessfully, to generate a populist mass movement through a liturgical style of politics and a programme of radical policies which promised to overcome a threat posed by international socialism, to end the degeneration affecting the nation under liberalism, and to bring about a radical renewal of its social, political and cultural life as part of what was widely imagined to be the new era being inaugurated in Western civilization. The core mobilizing myth of fascism which conditions its ideology, propaganda, style of politics and actions is the vision of the nation's imminent rebirth from decadence. — [[Roger Griffin]], ''The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology''<ref>Roger Griffin, ''[http://ah.brookes.ac.uk/history/staff/griffin/coreoffascism.pdf The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology]'', Chapter published in Alessandro Campi (ed.), ''Che cos'è il fascismo?'' Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Roma, 2003, pp. 97-122.</ref>}} {{Quotation|A form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion. — [[Robert Paxton|Robert O. Paxton]], ''The Anatomy of Fascism'' .<ref name="anatomnyfascismo">{{cite book | last =Paxton | first =Robert | title =The Anatomy of Fascism| publisher =Vintage Books| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=oGMfAAAACAAJ&dq=The+Anatomy+of+Fascism| isbn =1400033918}}</ref>}} ===Post-war misusage=== {{main|Fascist (epithet)}} The word ''fascist'' has become a slur throughout the [[political spectrum]] following [[World War II]], and it has been uncommon for political groups to call themselves ''fascist.'' Scholar Richard Griffiths asserted in 2005 that the term fascism is the "most misused, and over-used word of our times".<ref name="intelligentguide">{{cite book | last =Griffiths | first =Richard | title =An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism| publisher =Duckworth| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Y668AAAACAAJ&dq=Griffiths,+Richard+Fascism | isbn =0715629182}}</ref> In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. In the strict sense of the word, Fascism covers movements before WWII, and later movements who some claim have a vague connection to the original form are described as [[Neo-fascism|neo-fascist]]. Some have argued that the term ''fascist'' has become hopelessly vague over the years and that it has become little more than a pejorative [[epithet]], for example socialist [[George Orwell]] wrote in 1944; {{Quotation|The word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, [[Social Credit]], [[corporal punishment]], [[fox-hunting]], [[bull-fighting]], the [[1922 Committee]], the [[1941 Committee]], [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling]], [[Gandhi]], [[Chiang Kai-Shek]], [[homosexuality]], [[J. B. Priestley|Priestley]]'s broadcasts, [[Youth Hostel]]s, [[astrology]], women, dogs and I do not know what else... almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’. — [[George Orwell]], ''What is Fascism?''. 1944.<ref name="orwell1944">{{cite news|url=http://orwell.ru/library/articles/As_I_Please/english/efasc|publisher=Orwell.ru|title=George Orwell: ‘What is Fascism?’|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref>}} ==Italian Fascism== {{main|Italian fascism}} {{see also|The Doctrine of Fascism|Actual Idealism|March on Rome}} Fascism was born during a period of social and political unrest following the [[First World War]]. The war had seen Italy, born from the [[Italian unification]] less than a century earlier begin to appreciate a sense of nationalism, rather than the historic regionalism.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Despite the [[Fascist Italy|Kingdom of Italy]] being a fully fledged [[Allies of World War I|Allied Power]] during the war against the [[Central Powers]], Italy was given what nationalists considered an unfair deal at the [[Treaty of Versailles]]; which they saw as the other allies "blocking" Italy from progressing to a major power.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> A significant example of this was when the other allies told Italy to hand over the city of [[Fiume]] at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]], this saw war veteran [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]] declaring the independent state [[Italian Regency of Carnaro]].<ref name="macdonal">{{cite book | last = Macdonald | first =Hamish | title =Mussolini and Italian Fascism| publisher =Nelson Thornes| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g | isbn =0748733868}}</ref> He positioned himself as ''Duce'' of the nation and declared a [[constitution]], the ''[[Charter of Carnaro]]'' which was highly influential to early Fascism, though he himself never became a fascist.<ref name="macdonal">{{cite book | last = Macdonald | first =Hamish | title =Mussolini and Italian Fascism| publisher =Nelson Thornes| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g | isbn =0748733868}}</ref> [[Image:Czarne koszule.png|thumb|210px|left|Blackshirts and Mussolini 1922]] The war had left Italy with [[inflation]], large debts, [[unemployment]] aggravated by demobilisation of thousands of soldiers and social unrest with strikes,<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> attempts at insurrection by anarchists, socialists and communists,<ref name="marchonrome">{{cite news|url=http://original.britannica.com/eb/article-9083848/March-on-Rome|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|title=March on Rome|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> as well as a breeding ground for [[organised crime]]. The democratically elected [[Italian Liberal Party (historical)|Liberal]] government had no means to control the unrest, so when [[Benito Mussolini]] took matters into his own hands to combat the social unrest by organising the paramilitary [[blackshirts]], made up of former socialists and war veterans, [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]]s such as [[Giovanni Giolitti]] allowed them to continue.<ref name="giolitti">{{cite book | last =De Grand | first =Alexander J| title =The Hunchback's Tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882-1922| publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5x7hE8hp1UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Giovanni+Giolitti++mussolini&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0| isbn =027596874X}}</ref> The government prefered this [[class collaboration]] orientated movement, to the prospect of a greatly feared bloody [[class war]] coming to Italy by the hand of the communists, following the recent [[Russian Revolution]].<ref name="giolitti">{{cite book | last =De Grand | first =Alexander J| title =The Hunchback's Tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882-1922| publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5x7hE8hp1UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Giovanni+Giolitti++mussolini&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0| isbn =027596874X}}</ref> Within ''[[The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle]]'' the initial stances of Fascism were outlined, requesting amongst other things voting rights for [[women]], insertion of a [[minimum wage]], insertion of an eight-hour workday for all [[workers]] and reorganisation of public transport such as [[railways]].<ref name="maifestoofstruggle">{{cite news|url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39164|publisher=WND.com|title=Flunking Fascism 101|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Image:Benito Mussolini Roman Salute.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mussolini giving a speech and performing the [[Roman salute]] towards his gathered audience.]] By the early 1920s, popular support for the fascist's fight against "[[Bolshevism]]" had increased to around 250,000. The ''Fascisti'' were transformed into the [[National Fascist Party]] in 1921, with Mussolini being elected to the [[Italian Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] the same year, enterting legitimate politics.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The Liberals retained power but Prime Ministers came and went at a fast pace, [[Luigi Facta]]'s government was particularly unstable and dithering.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The fascists had enough of what they considered a weak parliamentary democracy process and organised the [[March on Rome]] in an effort to take power, with promises of restoring Italian pride, reviving the [[economy]], increasing productivity, ending harmful government controls and furthering [[law and order]].<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Whilst the march was taking place king [[Victor Emmanuel III]] made Mussolini Prime Minister and thus the march turned into a victory parade, the Fascists believed their success was both [[revolutionary]] and [[traditionalist]].<ref name="jstororgro">{{cite news|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/1852268|publisher=Roland Sarti|title=Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref name="appstate">{{cite news|url=http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html|publisher=Appstate.edu|title=Mussolini's Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Mussolini and the Fascists followed through domestically with elaborate [[public works]] programmes such as the taming of the [[Pontine Marshes]], developing [[hydroelectricity]], improving the railways which in the process improved job opportunities.<ref>{{cite book | last = Warwick Palmer | first = Alan |title =Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day| publisher = Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=YdMWTvXhVlUC&pg=PA259&lpg=PA259&dq=mussolini's+achievements&source=web&ots=ZIUrvUaAs2&sig=fkqzJNT_g6GFZIm3ILbn43_HDhI | isbn = 0415131618}}</ref> Economically Italy improved with the [[GNP]] growing at 2% a year; automobile production was increasing especially those owned by [[Fiat]],<ref>{{cite book | last =Tolliday | first =Steven | title =The Power to Manage?: Employers and Industrial Relations in Comparative| publisher =Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UQGKReSZtWsC&pg=PA205&lpg=PA205&dq=fiat+fascism&source=web&ots=MIJ8JzxuR2&sig=a38wr4u2z6bey5JTxo_VFiz84WA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result| isbn =0415026253}}</ref> its [[aeronautical]] industry was making advances.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Mussolini also championed [[agrarianism]] as part of what he called battles for ''Land, Lira and Grain''; he physically took part in these activities alongside the workers creating a strong public image.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cronologia.leonardo.it/storia/a1925b.htm|publisher=Cronologia.it|title=Anno 1925|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref name="economy">{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/economy_in_fascist_italy.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=The Economy in Fascist Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Due to this government-directed economic policy, Italy was able to avoid the [[Great Depression]] which hit more industrial nations.<ref name="economy">{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/economy_in_fascist_italy.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=The Economy in Fascist Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Through various outlets including everything from [[stamps]] to monumental architectural and sculptural works, the Fascists made Italians of every social class aware of the country's rich cultural heritage, including [[Roman]], medieval, [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] periods through to the modern age.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/cup_detail.taf?ti_id=4199|publisher=CornellPress.edu|title=Donatello Among the Blackshirts|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Fascism declared war on the [[Mafia]] and [[organised crime]], to defeat it the fascists did so on the terms which the Mafia itself had used for so long -- violence and honour.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.americanmafia.com/Feature_Articles_267.html|publisher=AmericanMafia.com|title=Mussolini Takes On the Mafia|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Mussolini recieved plaudits from a wide range of figures, such as [[Winston Churchill]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ronterpening.com/extras/league_ex.htm|publisher=RonterPening.com|title=Top Ten Facts About Mussolini|date=[[27 January]] 2008}}</ref> [[Sigmund Freud]],<ref>{{cite book | last =Falasca-Zamponi| first = Simonetta |title =Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy| publisher =University of California Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=_vcFQTOsRXgC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22the+Hero+of+Culture%22+Sigmund+Freud&source=web&ots=vAAFHhS7Ve&sig=j-EwhKibadnYTatZcNJmr5FZCR8&hl=en| isbn = 0520226771}}</ref> [[Mahatma Gandhi]],<ref name="pound">{{cite news|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=My2rlb0bnx0C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22I+am+no+superman+like+Mussolini%22&source=web&ots=UlaTM7Nm67&sig=YW9AV1oyMNjUgc96AgDvJtup2sM&hl=en|publisher=Leon Surette|title=Pound in Purgatory|date=[[27 January]] 2008}}</ref> [[George Bernard Shaw]]<ref>{{cite book | last =Matthews Gibbs| first = Anthony |title =A Bernard Shaw Chronology| publisher =Palgrave| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=3x8_4LyMyT4C&dq=George+Bernard+Shaw+mussolini| isbn =0312231636}}</ref> and [[Thomas Edison]].<ref name="pound">{{cite news|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=My2rlb0bnx0C&pg=PA71&lpg=PA71&dq=%22I+am+no+superman+like+Mussolini%22&source=web&ots=UlaTM7Nm67&sig=YW9AV1oyMNjUgc96AgDvJtup2sM&hl=en|publisher=Leon Surette|title=Pound in Purgatory|date=[[27 January]] 2008}}</ref> It was under Mussolini that the long standing [[Roman Question]] was concluded with the [[Lateran Treaty]] between the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Holy See]], this allowed the Holy See to have a tiny [[microstate]] within the city of Rome; the move was brought about due to most Italians being religiously Catholic.<ref name="heater">{{cite book | last =Heater| first =Derek Benjamin |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=94oMyEWGnXYC&pg=PA47&dq=Lateran+Treaty+mussolini&sig=ACfU3U22an9Yd029LbC-gI1OMBFsJZ3OHQ|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=Our World this Century| isbn = 0199133247}}</ref> {{cquote|''"The Fascist accepts life and loves it, knowing nothing of and despising suicide; he rather conceives of life as duty and struggle and conquest, life which should be high and full, lived for oneself, but not above all for others -- those who are at hand and those who are far distant, contemporaries, and those who will come after."''|20px|20px|[[Giovanni Gentile]] in the [[The Doctrine of Fascism]], signed by Benito Mussolini, 1933.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm|publisher=WorldFutureFund.org|title=The Doctrine of Fascism - Benito Mussolini (1932)|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref>}} [[Image:Giovanni Gentile.gif|thumb|150px|left|[[Giovanni Gentile]] — ''The Philosopher of Fascism''.]] [[The Doctrine of Fascism]] is the official presenatation of the Fascist ideology; authored by [[Giovanni Gentile]], approved by Mussolini and presented to the public in 1933.<ref name="gentile">{{cite book | last = Gregor| first =A. James|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile|publisher=Transaction Pub|title=Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism| isbn = 0765805936}}</ref> Gentile was a Sicilian who was influenced by the likes of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Plato]], [[Benedetto Croce|Croce]] and [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]]; he introduced the idea of [[Actual Idealism]].<ref name="gentile">{{cite book | last = Gregor| first =A. James|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile|publisher=Transaction Pub|title=Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism| isbn = 0765805936}}</ref> The Doctrine presented that the Fascist viewed the world quite apart from the mere constricts of currently political trends, but rather the wider picture of humankind.<ref name="gentile">{{cite book | last = Gregor| first =A. James|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile|publisher=Transaction Pub|title=Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism| isbn = 0765805936}}</ref> It rejected ideas of "perpetual peace" as fantasy and accepted man as a species constantly at war and those who met it achieved the stamp of nobility. It accepted that in general men who had made the most significant impact in history were conquerers such as [[Julius Caesar]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Charlemagne]] and [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]; the [[Roman Empire]] was of particular inspiration.<ref name="gentile">{{cite book | last = Gregor| first =A. James|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=xQEjHAAACAAJ&dq=giovanni+gentile|publisher=Transaction Pub|title=Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism| isbn = 0765805936}}</ref> It looked at Italy and saw that life for the state and by product the everyday person was of a better standard, under a single party fascist system than it had been in 1920 under a democratic liberal party.<ref name="heater">{{cite book | last =Heater| first =Derek Benjamin |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=94oMyEWGnXYC&pg=PA47&dq=Lateran+Treaty+mussolini&sig=ACfU3U22an9Yd029LbC-gI1OMBFsJZ3OHQ|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=Our World this Century| isbn = 0199133247}}</ref> Mussolini thus spoke of [[democracy]] as "beautiful in theory, in practice it is a fallacy"<ref>{{cite book | last =Spignesi| first =Stephen J |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=ufXPKUqorS8C&dq=%22Democracy+is+beautiful+in+theory%22|publisher=CITADEL PR|title=The Italian 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential, Cultural, Scientific, and Political Figures,Past and Present| isbn = 0806523999}}</ref> and spoke in speeches of celebrating burying the "putrid corpse of liberty" to rapturous Italian applause.<ref name="heater">{{cite book | last =Heater| first =Derek Benjamin |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=94oMyEWGnXYC&pg=PA47&dq=Lateran+Treaty+mussolini&sig=ACfU3U22an9Yd029LbC-gI1OMBFsJZ3OHQ|publisher=Oxford University Press|title=Our World this Century| isbn = 0199133247}}</ref> It was the [[Acerbo Law]] of 1922, which had allowed Italy to become a single party system. The [[National Fascist Party]] had won the election with 65% of the votes, giving them 2/3 of the parliamentary seats.<ref name="matteotti">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797902,00.html|publisher=Time.com|title=So Long Ago|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The socialists were bitter with this defeat and couldn't accept it, especially socialist [[Giacomo Matteotti]] who accused the Fascists of fraud.<ref name="matteotti">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797902,00.html|publisher=Time.com|title=So Long Ago|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> He was killed by [[Amerigo Dumini]], for this Mussolini had Dumini tried and imprisoned but some socialists accused him of foul play, they protested by quitting parliament leaving the Fascists as the sole representatives.<ref name="fsmith">{{cite news|url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch12.htm|publisher=FSmitha.com|title=Mussolini and Fascism in Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The means which Mussolini generally dealt with political dissenters was placing them under arrest and sending them to small Italian islands.<ref name="farrell">{{cite book | last =Farrell| first =Nicholas Burgess|url =http://books.google.com/books?id=aSlIzmsxU8oC&dq=new+life+mussolini|publisher=Orion Publishing Group|title=Mussolini: A New Life| isbn =1842121235}}</ref> Mussolini declared himself ''Duce'' from the Roman title [[dux]] meaning leader in 1925; though regarded a dictator by most popular historians, the [[Grand Council of Fascism]] was still in place and the king had the power to fire Mussolini, as would eventually happen.<ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> [[Image:Italy and Posessions September 1939.png|thumb|210px|right|The [[Italian Empire]] in 1939.]] Influenced by the concepts of the [[Roman Empire]], with Mussolini viewing himself as a modern day [[Roman Emperor]], Italy set out to build the [[Italian Empire]].<ref name="cultural">{{cite news|url=http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/115|publisher=jch.sagepub.com|title=Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> With an [[expansionist]] and [[militarian]] agenda, their [[colonialism]] reached further into [[Africa]] in an attempt to compete with [[British Empire|British]] and [[French Empire|French]] colonial empires.<ref name="colonialism">{{cite book | last = Copinger| first =Stewart | title =The rise and fall of Western colonialism| publisher =F.A.Praeger| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=8tZBAAAAIAAJ&q=italian+empire+colonial+british+french&dq=italian+empire+colonial+british+french&pgis=1}}</ref> Italy had long owned [[Libya]] and parts of [[East Africa]] but took [[Ethiopia]] under Mussolini.<ref name="colonialism">{{cite book | last = Copinger| first =Stewart | title =The rise and fall of Western colonialism| publisher =F.A.Praeger| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=8tZBAAAAIAAJ&q=italian+empire+colonial+british+french&dq=italian+empire+colonial+british+french&pgis=1}}</ref> The means in which the fascists kept power was sometimes with a strong hand, especially inregards to [[guerrilla]]s and [[rebels]] who attempted to overthrow them; [[Omar Mukhtar]] was a notable Libyan example. However, Italian fascism did not discriminate in regards to [[race]] or [[religion]], so long as the peoples swore fealty to a cultural "[[Italianization|Italianisation]]" and Mussolini.<ref name="cultural">{{cite news|url=http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/115|publisher=jch.sagepub.com|title=Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Just as the [[Italian Jews]] were permitted to join the NFP back in Italy,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.acjna.org/acjna/articles_detail.aspx?id=300|publisher=ACJNA.org|title=The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Hollander | first =Ethan J| title =Italian Fascism and the Jews| publisher = University of California| url =http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF | isbn =0803946481}}</ref> [[Libyan]] [[Muslim]]s had their own section of the party called the [[Muslim Association of the Lictor]] in the colony.<ref>{{cite book | last = Segrè| first =Claudio G| title =Italo Balbo a fascist life: a Fascist life| publisher =University of California Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace&sig=ACfU3U1BTr2IQkCU7gfZKyLAg2TRbp6a8g | isbn =0520071999}}</ref> In a ceremony of unity regardless of religion, Mussolini was awarded the ancient [[Yemeni]] artifact the ''Sword of Islam'' by a Libyan chieftain.<ref>{{cite book | last = Galaty | first =Michael L| title =Archaeology under dictatorship| publisher = Springer| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=E0U104S4msoC&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=%22sword+of+islam%22+mussolini&source=web&ots=Cx7W7waHJS&sig=M1TRQcmwMppSgWzBLjvlKMM0ZHg&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result | isbn =0306485087}}</ref> In East Africa too the natives had opportunities to serve with the fascists in the [[MVSN Colonial Militia]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Jowett| first =Philip S | title =The Italian Army 1940-45 (2): Africa 1940-43| publisher =Nelson Thornes| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=vrVJAToL35QC&pg=PT21&dq=MVSN+Colonial+Militia&sig=ACfU3U2bwRPGtfE3pHFM-MQFZTS8VM78MA#PPT21,M1 | isbn =1855328658}}</ref> However the expansionist ideology did not stop there. The ''[[Italia irredenta]]'' stance desired the returning of lands which previous belonged to older states now incorporated inside of Italy, to complete the [[Italian unification]].<ref name="unification">{{cite book | last = Lowe | first =CJ| title =Italian Foreign Policy 1870-1940| publisher = Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=5Cfuax6XHF0C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=irredentism&source=web&ots=Kg9o1ECiRf&sig=9LHnE17Ryi3BqmFRgGuCgT0sNKc&hl=en| isbn =0415265975}}</ref> This included [[County of Nice|Nice]] which was part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] until 1860 as well as [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-524132/Sardinia|publisher=Britannica.com|title=Kingdom of Sardinia|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Corsica]] which was part of the [[Republic of Genoa]] until 1768,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/historical/biography/paoli_corsica.html|publisher=Age-of-the-Sage.org|title=Pasquale Paoli & Corsican Independence from Genoa|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Dalmatia]] which was part of the [[Republic of Venice]] until 1797 and [[Malta]] which was part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] until 1530.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.regalis.com/malta/maltasicily.htm|publisher=Regalis.com|title=The Order of Saint John and the Kingdom of Sicily|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> {{cquote|''"[[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]]! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [...] [[National pride]] has no need of the delirium of race."''|20px|20px|Benito Mussolini, 1933.<ref>{{cite book | last = Montagu | first =Ashley | title =Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race| publisher = Rowman Altamira| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=tkHqP3vgYi4C&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187&dq=%22+Nothing+will+ever+make+me+believe+that+biologically+pure+races+can+be+shown+to+exist+today%22&source=web&ots=ao7O_J0vr8&sig=22zZBSKlbcxbrBF1PXP3_PJygj0&hl=en | isbn =0803946481}}</ref>}} ==Other variations and subforms== {{see also|European fascist ideologies}} Movements identified by scholars as fascist hold a variety of views, what constitutes as fascism is often a hotly contested subject. The original movement which self-identified as Fascist was that of [[Benito Mussolini]] and his [[National Fascist Party]]. Intellectuals such as [[Giovanni Gentile]] produced [[The Doctrine of Fascism]] and founded the ideology. The majority of strains which emerged after the original fascism, but are sometimes placed under the wider usage of the term, self-identified their parties with different names, major examples include; [[Falangism]], [[National Syndicalism]], [[Integralism]] and [[National Socialism]] as well as various other designations.<ref>{{cite book | last = Mühlberger | first =Detlef | title =The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements| publisher =Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=suENAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Falangism,+National+Syndicalism,+Integralism+and+National+Socialism&sig=ACfU3U33n_xq_eKDOGwFVLuXPKSGZOYFuA | isbn =0709935854}}</ref> ===Falangism=== {{main|Falangism}} {{see also|Falangism in Latin America}} [[Image:José Antonio Primo de Rivera Face.jpg|thumb|140px|left|[[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]], Falangism founder.]] [[Falangism]] is a form of fascism founded by [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] in 1933, emerging during a complex political time during the [[Second Spanish Republic]].<ref name="spanishfascism">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism| publisher =Textbook Publisherss| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=rsHyAAAACAAJ&dq=Spanish+Fascism&lr=| isbn =0758134452}}</ref> Primo de Rivera was the son of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] who was apointed [[List of Prime Ministers of Spain|Prime Minister]] of the [[Spain under the Restoration|Kingdom of Spain]] by [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] monarch [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]]; José's father would serve as military dictator from 1923—1930. In the [[Spanish general election, 1931]] the winners were socialists and radical republican parties; this saw Alfonso XIII "suspending the exercise of royal power" and going into exile in [[Rome]].<ref name="alfonso">{{cite news|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0803302.html|publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia|title=Alfonso XIII, king of Spain|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Spain had turned from a [[kingdom]] into a far-left [[republic]] overnight.<ref name="alfonso">{{cite news|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0803302.html|publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia|title=Alfonso XIII, king of Spain|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> A [[classical liberalism|liberal]] Republican Constitution was instated, giving the right of [[autonomy]] to regions, stripping the nobility of juristic status and stripping from the [[Catholic Church]] its schools.<ref>{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936| publisher =Univ of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=46N-pNbNG2kC&pg=PA47&lpg=PA47&dq=Republican+Constitution+spain&source=web&ots=cwO3rgcwnw&sig=S-SuDDsdMUUC2afqOiUhRqjrqJM&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result| isbn =0299136744}}</ref> It was in this environment that José Antonio Primo de Rivera looked at Mussolini's Italy and found inspiration. Primo de Rivera founded the [[Falange|Falange Española]] party; the name is a reference to the formidable [[Ancient Greek]] military formation [[phalanx formation|phalanx]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Keefe| first =Eugene K| title =Area Handbook for Spain| publisher =American University| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=zLRAAAAAIAAJ&q=Phalanx+formation+falange&dq=Phalanx+formation+falange&lr=&pgis=1| isbn =0299136744}}</ref> Just a year after foundation Falange Española merged with the [[Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista]] party of [[Ramiro Ledesma]] and [[Onésimo Redondo]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/308385/Juntas-de-Ofensiva-Nacional-Sindicalista|publisher=Britannica.com|title=Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The party and Primo de Rivera revealed the [[Falange Manifesto]] in November 1934; it promoted [[Nationalist Spain|nationalism]], unity, glorification of the [[Spanish Empire]] and dedication to the [[national syndicalism]] economic policy, inspired by [[integralism]] in which there is [[class collaboration]].<ref name="falangeschoolnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPfalange.htm|publisher=Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk|title=Falange Española|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The manifesto supported [[agrarianism]], looking to improve the standard of living for the peasants of the rural areas. It supported [[anti-capitalism]], [[anti-Marxism]], repudiating the latter's divisive class war philosophy, and was directly opposed to the ruling Republican regime.<ref name="falangeschoolnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPfalange.htm|publisher=Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk|title=Falange Española|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The Falange participated in the [[Spanish general election, 1936]] with low results compared to the far-left [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]], but soon after increased in membership rapidly, with a membership of 40,000.<ref name="antonioprimo">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPantonio.htm|publisher=Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk|title=José Antonio Primo de Rivera |date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> {{cquote|''"We reject the [[capitalist]] system, which disregards the needs of the people, dehumanizes private property, and transforms the workers into shapeless masses that are prone to misery and despair. Our spiritual and [[national]] awareness likewise repudiates [[Marxism]]. We shall channel the drive of the working classes, that are nowadays led astray by Marxism, by demanding their direct participation in the formidable task of the national [[State]]."''|20px|20px|[[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]], Falange Manifesto. 1934.<ref name="falangeschoolnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPfalange.htm|publisher=Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk|title=Falange Española|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref>}} [[Image:Bandera FE JONS.svg|thumb|right|200px|Flag of the FET y de las JONS party.]] Primo de Rivera was captured by Republicans on [[6 July]] [[1936]] and held in captivity at [[Alicante]]. The [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out on [[17 July]] [[1936]] between the Republicans and the Nationalists, with the ''Falangistas'' fighting for Nationalist cause.<ref name="falangeschoolnet">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPfalange.htm|publisher=Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk|title=Falange Española|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Despite his incarceration Primo de Rivera was a strong symbol of the cause, refered to as ''El Ausente'', meaning "the Absent One"; he was [[summarily executed]] on 20 November after a trial by socialists.<ref>{{cite book | last =Loveday| first =Arthur Frederic | title =Spain, 1923-1948: Civil War and World War| publisher =Boswell Publishing Company| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=TVhYAAAAMAAJ&q=El+Ausente+primo+de+rivera&dq=El+Ausente+primo+de+rivera&pgis=1}}</ref> After this military man [[Francisco Franco]] became leader of the Falangists and continued the nationalist fight, with aid from [[Fascist Italy|Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] against the republicans who were supported by the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Tucker| first =Spencer | title =Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History| publisher =ABC-CLIO| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=U0xblxV_pLgC&pg=PA8&dq=Spanish+Civil+War+soviet+union+germany+italy&sig=ACfU3U02ykBEvGZ9lWEwfAAeX2WhGpvCoQ|isbn=1576079996}}</ref> A merger between the Falange and the [[Carlism|Carlist traditionalists]] who support a different line of the [[House of Bourbon|monarchy]] to that of exiled Alfonso XIII took place in 1937, creating the [[Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista|FET y de las JONS]].<ref name="spanishfascism">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism| publisher =Textbook Publisherss| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=rsHyAAAACAAJ&dq=Spanish+Fascism&lr=| isbn =0758134452}}</ref> This is somewhat controversial in Falangist circles because [[Authentic Falange|some elements]] argue that it was a move away from "authentic Falangism".<ref>{{cite book | last = Del Boca | first =Angelo| title =Fascism Today: A World Survey| publisher =Pantheon Books| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=nadBAAAAIAAJ&q=%22authentic+Falangism%22&dq=%22authentic+Falangism%22&pgis=1}}</ref> Regardless nationalists won the Civil War, inserting the [[Spanish State]] in 1939 and under a [[single-party system]] Franco ruled.<ref name="spanishfascism">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism| publisher =Textbook Publisherss| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=rsHyAAAACAAJ&dq=Spanish+Fascism&lr=| isbn =0758134452}}</ref> Franco managed to balance several different interests of elements in his party, in an effort to keep them united, especially in regards to the question of monarchy.<ref name="francoyears">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =The Franco Regime, 1936-1975| publisher =University of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=mgDWLYcTYIAC&dq=Francisco+Franco+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0| isbn =0299110702}}</ref> The Francoist state was strongly nationalist, [[anti-communist]] and anti-seperatist throughout with his [[Movimiento Nacional]]; he supported [[traditional values]] such as [[Christianity]], in contrast to the [[Anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] violence of the republicans.<ref name="francoyears">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =The Franco Regime, 1936-1975| publisher =University of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=mgDWLYcTYIAC&dq=Francisco+Franco+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0| isbn =0299110702}}</ref> Franco remained as "President for Life" of Spain, with his period of rule only ending in 1975 with his death.<ref name="francoyears">{{cite book | last =Payne | first =Stanley G| title =The Franco Regime, 1936-1975| publisher =University of Wisconsin Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=mgDWLYcTYIAC&dq=Francisco+Franco+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0| isbn =0299110702}}</ref> ===Austrofascism=== {{main|Austrofascism}} Austrofascism was partly based on a fusion of Italian fascism, as expounded by Gentile, and Austria's Political Catholicism. It had an ideology of the "community of the people" (Volksgemeinschaft) that was different from that of the Nazis. They were similar in that both served to attack the idea of a class struggle by accusing leftism of destroying individuality, and thus help usher in a totalitarian state. [[Engelbert Dollfuss|Engelbert Dollfuß]] claimed he wanted to "over-Hitler" (überhitlern) Nazism. Austrofascism, however, focused on the history of Austria. The Catholic Church played a large role in the Austrofascist definition of Austrian history and identity, which served to alienate Austrian and German culture. According to this philosophy, Austrians were "better Germans" (by this time, the majority of the German population was [[Protestantism|Protestant]]). The monarchy was elevated to the ideal of a powerful and far-reaching state, a status which Austria lost after the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]]. ===4th of August Regime=== {{main|4th of August Regime}} From [[1936]] to [[1941]], [[Greece]] was ruled by an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] regime under the leadership of [[General]] [[Ioannis Metaxas]] akin to that of [[Spain under Franco|Franco's Spain]]. Historians of this period in Greek history, such as [[Richard Clogg]], [[John Hondros]], [[William McNeill]], [[Montague Woodhouse, 5th Baron Terrington|C. M. Woodhouse]] and others, all strongly contend that the state was not "fascist" but authoritarian with fascist "leanings".{{Fact|date=December 2007}} The Metaxas regime differed from regimes such as [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini's]] and [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] in many notable ways: it was relatively nonviolent, did not pursue an [[Megali Idea|expansionist agenda]], it did not institute [[antisemitism|anti-semitic]] programs, and it lacked a mass political movement. ===Estado Novo=== {{main|Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo (Brazil)}} The Estado Novo was an authoritarian regime with an [[integralism|integralist]] orientation, which differed from other [[fascist]] regimes by its lack of expansionism, lack of a charismatic leader, lack of party structure and more moderate use of state violence. <ref>Kallis, Aristotle A. [http://books.google.com/books?id=tP2wXl5nzboC&pg=PA313&lpg=PA313&dq=estado+novo+fascit&source=web&ots=loM9xsNU7r&sig=TSgWomLAR3hTFq2XstvYIlQJC94#PPA313,M1 Fascism Reader] p. 313-317 2003 Routledge</ref> However it incorporated the same principles for its military from [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s system. Its founder in [[Portugal]], [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], was a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] traditionalist who believed in the necessity of control over the forces of economic modernisation in order to defend the religious and rural values of the country, which he perceived as being threatened. One of the pillars of the regime was the [[PIDE]], the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the [[Tarrafal camp|Tarrafal]] prison in the African archipelago of [[Cape Verde]], on the capital island of Santiago, or in local jails. Strict state censorship was in place. Another authoritarian government, installed in Brazil by President [[Getúlio Dornelles Vargas]], lasted from 1937 to 1945. It was modelled on the Portuguese Estado Novo regime and even took its name. ===Iron Gaurd=== {{main|Iron Guard}} The Iron Guard was founded by [[Corneliu Zelea Codreanu]] on [[July 24]], [[1927]] as the Legion of the [[Archangel Michael]] (''Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail''), and led by him until Codreanu's death in 1938, adherents to the movement continued to be widely referred to as "legionnaires" (sometimes "legionaries"; [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''legionarii'') and the organization as the "Legion" or the "Legionary Movement" (''Mişcarea Legionară''), despite various changes of the (intermittently banned) organization's name. In March 1930 Codreanu formed the "Iron Guard" (''Garda de Fier'') as a [[paramilitary]] political branch of the Legion; this name eventually came to refer to the Legion itself. Later, in June 1935, the Legion changed its official name to the ''Totul pentru Ţară'' party, literally "Everything for the Country", but commonly translated as "Everything for the Fatherland" or occasionally "Everything for the Motherland".<ref>''Totul pentru Ţară'' is translated as "Everything for the Fatherland" in ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]]'' material that is now incorporated into ''[[Encarta]]'' as a sidebar ([http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500758/1938_Rumania.html 1938: Rumania]) and in the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' article[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042802 Iron Guard]; the [[International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania]] uses "Everything for the Motherland" in the English-language version of its November 11, 2004 [http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/presentations/programs/presentations/2005-03-10/pdf/english/chapter_03.pdf Final Report] ([[PDF]]). (All retrieved 6 Dec 2005.)</ref> ===Nazism=== [[Image:Reichsparteitag 1935 mod.jpg|thumb|200px|Nazi rally, 1935]] {{main|Nazism}} Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type or offshoot of fascism, some scholars, such as Gilbert Allardyce and [[A.F.K. Organski]], argue that Nazism is not fascism — either because the differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot be generic.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gilbert Allardyce|title=What Fascism Is Not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept|year=1979|journal=American Historical Review|volume=84|issue=2|pages=367–388|doi=10.2307/1855138}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul H. Lewis|title=Latin Fascist Elites|year=2000|publisher=Praeger/Greenwood|id=ISBN 0-275-97880-X|pages=9}}</ref> A synthesis of these two opinions, states that German Nazism was a form of racially-oriented fascism, while Italian fascism was state-oriented. Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race, in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state, as ultimately subservient to the race.<ref>Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21</ref> Mussolini's Fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only [[purpose of government]] in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as [[statolatry]]. Where fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the ''[[Volk]]'' and of the ''[[Volksgemeinschaft]]'' <ref> Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship, Problems & perspectives of interpretation, 4th Edition. Hodder Arnold 2000, p41 </ref> Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002 p.62) observes: <blockquote>There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.<ref>[http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/people/kp/ http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/people/kp/]</ref></blockquote> ===Neo-fascism=== {{main|Neo-fascism|Neo-Nazism}} Post WWII movements that includes significant elements of fascism are called Neo-fascist which literally menas "New fascism". The term ''neo-fascist'' may apply to groups that express a specific admiration for [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[fascist Italy|Italian fascism]]. Neo-fascism usually includes [[nationalism]], anti-immigration policies or, where relevant, [[nativism]] (see definition), [[anti-communism]], and opposition to the [[parliamentary system]] and [[liberal democracy]]. Allegations that a group is neo-fascist may be hotly contested, especially if the term is used as a [[Fascist (epithet)|politic epithet]]. Some post-World War II regimes have been described as neo-fascist due to their [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] nature, and sometimes due to their fascination with fascist [[ideology]] and rituals. Neo-fascist movements have become more straight-forwardly right wing and became intertwined with the radical right.<ref>Roger Griffin, Interregnum or Endgame?: Radical Right Thought in the ‘Post-fascist’ Era, ''The Journal of Political Ideologies,'' vol. 5, no. 2, July 2000, pp. 163-78</ref><ref>[http://home.alphalink.com.au/~radnat/theories-right/theory1.html Europe For The Europeans: Fascist Myths Of The New Order 1922 - 1992] Roger Griffin</ref> ==Nationalism== All fascist movements advocate [[nationalism]], especially [[ethnic nationalism]] and seek to integrate as many of their dominant nationality's people and as much of their people's territory into the state. Fascists support [[irredentism]] and [[expansionism]] to unite and expand the nation. However an authoritarian or ethnic nationalist movement or regime does not necessarily denote a fascist regime, as other key elements are needed for such a definition. ==Dictatorship== A key element of fascism is its endorsement of the leadership of a dictator over a country. The leader of the movement is often literally known as the "Leader" (Duce in Italian, Führer in German, Conductator in Romanian). Fascist leaders are not always heads of state but are always the head of government of the state, such as [[Benito Mussolini]] as Prime Minister of the [[Kingdom of Italy]]. Although the broadest descriptions of fascism may include every authoritarian state that has ever existed, most theorists see important distinctions to be made. Fascism in Italy arose in the 1920s as a mixture of [[syndicalist]] notions with an anti-[[Materialism|materialist]]{{Fact|date=February 2008}} theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme [[nationalism]]. Fascists accused [[parliamentary democracy]] of producing division and decline, and wished to renew the nation from decadence. They viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. Fascism universally dismissed the Marxist concept of "[[class struggle]]", replacing it instead with the concept of "[[class collaboration]]". Fascists embraced nationalism and [[mysticism]], advancing ideals of strength and power. Fascism is typified by [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic, by way of a strong, single-party government for enacting laws and a strong, sometimes brutal militia or police force for enforcing them.<ref>David Baker, The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality? New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250 </ref> Fascism exalts the [[nation]], [[state]], or group of people as superior to the individuals composing it. Fascism uses explicit [[populism|populist]] rhetoric; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness; and demands loyalty to a single leader, leading to a [[cult of personality]] and unquestioned obedience to orders ([[Führerprinzip]]). Fascism is also considered to be a form of [[collectivism]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Triandis, Harry C.|coauthors=Gelfand, Michele J.|title=Converging Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=74|issue=1|year=1998|pages=119|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118}}; ''Collectivism''. (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved [[November 14]] [[2006]], from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024764</ref><ref>Calvin B. Hoover, "The Paths of Economic Change: Contrasting Tendencies in the Modern World," ''The American Economic Review'', Vol. 25, No. 1, Supplement, Papers and Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association. (Mar., 1935), pp. 13-20; Philip Morgan, ''Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, New York Tayolor & Francis 2003, p. 168</ref><ref>Friedrich A. Hayek. 1944. ''The Road to Serfdom''. Routledge Press</ref> ==Military policy== Fascists typically advocate a strong military that is capable of both defensive and offensive actions. In Germany and Italy under Hitler and Mussolini, enormous amounts of funding was dedicated to the military. In some fascist regimes, the fascist movement itself has a paramilitary wing which is included in the armed forces of the country, such as the [[SS]] in Germany and the [[MVSN]] in Italy, which are devoted directly and specifically to the fascist movement. ==Fascism and Religion== According to a biographer of Mussolini, "Initially, fascism was fiercely anti-Catholic" - the Church being a competitor for dominion of the people's hearts. <ref>Farrell, Nicholas [http://books.google.com/books?id=aSlIzmsxU8oC&dq Mussolini: A New Life] p.5 2004 Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.</ref> The attitude of fascism toward religion has run the spectrum from persecution, to denunciation to cooperation. <ref name = "oktyar">Laqueur, Walter [http://books.google.com/books?id=fWggQTqioXcC&dq Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p.41 1996 Oxford University Press]</ref> Relations were close in the likes of the Belgian [[Rexism|Rexists]] (which was eventually denounced by the Church), but in the Nazi and Fascist parties it ranged from tolerance to near total renunciation.<ref name = "oktyar"/> Nazism, for example, was typically hostile to religion, arresting hundreds of priests in the late 1930s <ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568245_2/Fascism.html Fascism] Encarta Encyclopedia, Accessed June 30, 2008</ref> and eventually consigning thousands of them to concentration camps. Mussolini, originally an [[atheist]], published [[anti-Catholic]] writings and planned for the confiscation of Church property, but eventually moved to accommodation. <ref name = "oktyar"/> Hitler was born a Roman Catholic but renounced his faith at the age of twelve and largely used religious references to attract religious support to the Nazi political agenda. Mussolini largely endorsed the Roman Catholic Church for political legitimacy, as during the [[Lateran Treaty]] talks, Fascist officials engaged in bitter arguments with Vatican officials and put pressure on them to accept the terms that the regime deemed acceptable.<ref>Pollard, John F. (1985). ''The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32.'' Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press. p53</ref> In addition, many Fascists were [[anti-clerical]] in both private and public life. <ref>Laqueur, Walter[http://books.google.com/books?id=fWggQTqioXcC&dq Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p.42 1996 Oxford University Press]</ref> Hitler in public sought the support of both the Protestant and Roman Catholic religions in Germany, but in a far more muted manner than Mussolini's support of Roman Catholicism. The Nazi party had decidedly [[pagan]] elements and there were quarters of Italian fascism which were quite anti-clerical, but religion did play a real part in the [[Ustasha]] in Croatia. <ref>Laqueur, Walter[http://books.google.com/books?id=fWggQTqioXcC&dq Fascism: Past, Present, Future] p.148 1996 Oxford University Press]</ref> One position is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic wetanshauungen" claiming the whole of the person. <ref name = "oktyar"/> Along these lines, Yale political scientist, [[Juan Linz]] and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by a total ideology, making totalitarianism possible<ref>Griffin, Roger [http://books.google.com/books?id=FSgODum-CTUC&dq Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion], p. 7 2005Routledge </ref><ref>Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn [http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&dq Totalitarianism and Political Religions], p. 108, 2004 Routledge</ref>, and [[Roger Griffin]] has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious [[political religion]].<ref>Eatwell, Roger [http://people.bath.ac.uk/mlsre/EWE1&2.htm The Nature of Fascism: or Essentialism by Another Name?] 2004</ref> Such political religions vie with existing religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them. <ref>Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn [http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&dq Totalitarianism and Political Religions], p. 108, 2004 Routledge</ref> Hitler and the Nazi regime attempted to found their own version of Christianity called [[Positive Christianity]] which made major changes in its interpretation of the [[Bible]] which said that [[Jesus Christ]] was the son of God, but was not a Jew and claimed that Christ despised Jews, and that the Jews were the ones solely responsible for Christ's death. In Mexico the fascist<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ga/GarridoC.html "Garrido Canabal, Tomás"]. ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'' Sixth Edition (2005).</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=MopMAAAAMAAJ&q=&pgis=1 The New International Yearbook] p. 442, Dodd, Mead and Co. 1966</ref><ref>Millan, Verna Carleton, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2zInbon4a6cC&q=&pgis=1 Mexico Reborn], p.101, 1939 Riverside Press</ref> [[Red Shirts (Mexico)|Red Shirts]] not only renounced religion but were vehemently atheist<ref>Krauze, Enrique [http://www.tnr.com/doc.mhtml?i=20060619&s=krauze061906&c=2 THE TROUBLING ROOTS OF MEXICO'S LÓPEZ OBRADOR: Tropical Messiah] The New Republic June 19, 2006</ref>, killing priests, and on one occasion gunned down Catholics as they left Mass.<ref>Parsons, Wilfrid [http://books.google.com/books?id=mduJHmsrzhEC&pg=PA239&lpg=PA239&dq=redshirts+catholics+killed&source=web&ots=a1G_9dWEoO&sig=vVnwzJ1GLjWLlfsu4NLVwerORto&hl=en#PPA239,M1 Mexican Martyrdom], p. 238, 2003 Kessinger Publishing</ref> Although both Hitler and Mussolini were anticlerical, they both understood that it would be rash to begin their [[Kulturkampf]]s prematurely, such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, being put off while they dealt with other enemies. <ref>Laqueur, Walter[http://books.google.com/books?id=fWggQTqioXcC&dq Fascism: Past, Present, Future] pp. 31, 42, 1996 Oxford University Press]</ref> ==Economic planning== {{see|Economics of fascism}} Fascists opposed what they believed to be [[laissez-faire]] or quasi-laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the [[Great Depression]].<ref>David Baker, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", ''New Political Economy'', Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227–250.</ref> People of many different political stripes blamed laissez-faire [[capitalism]] for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "{{dn|Third way|third way}}" between capitalism and [[Marxian economics|Marxian socialism]].<ref>Philip Morgan, ''Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945'', Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.</ref> Their policies manifested as a radical extension of government control over the economy without wholesale [[expropriation]] of the [[means of production]]. Fascist governments [[Nationalization|nationalized]] some key industries, managed their [[Currency|currencies]] and made some massive state investments. They also introduced [[Incomes policy|price controls]], wage controls and other types of [[Economic interventionism|economic planning]] measures.<ref name = "Andreski-p64">Stanislav Andreski, Wars, Revolutions, Dictatorships, Routledge 1992, page 64</ref> Fascist governments instituted state-regulated allocation of resources, especially in the [[Finance|financial]] and [[raw materials]] sectors. Other than nationalization of certain industries, private [[property]] was allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state.<ref>James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7</ref> For example, "an owner of agricultural land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ more labor than he would find profitable."<ref name = "McGann-p30">Herbert Kitschelt, Anthony J. McGann. The Radical Right in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. 1996 University of Michigan Press. p. 30</ref><ref name = "McGann-p30"/> According to historian Tibor Ivan Berend, ''[[dirigisme]]'' was an inherent aspect of fascist economies.<ref>Tibor Ivan Berend, ''An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe'', Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 93</ref> The [[Labour Charter of 1927]], promulgated by the [[Grand Council of Fascism]], stated in article 7: :''"The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation''," then goes on to say in article 9 that: ''"State intervention in economic production may take place only where private initiative is lacking or is insufficient, or when are at stakes the political interest of the State. This intervention may take the form of control, encouragement or direct management."'' Fascism also operated from a [[Social Darwinism|Social Darwinist]] view of human relations. Their aim was to promote "superior" individuals and weed out the weak.<ref>Alexander J. De Grand, ''Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany'', Routledge, 1995. pp. 47.</ref> In terms of economic practice, this meant promoting the interests of successful businessmen while destroying [[trade union]]s and other organizations of the [[working class]].<ref>De Grand, ''Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany'', pp. 48–51.</ref> Historian [[Gaetano Salvemini]] argued in 1936 that fascism makes taxpayers responsible to private enterprise, because "the State pays for the blunders of private enterprise... Profit is private and individual. Loss is public and social."<ref>Salvemini, Gaetano. ''Under the Axe of Fascism'' 1936.</ref> Economic policy in the first few years of Italian fascism was largely liberal, with the Ministry of Finance controlled by the old liberal [[Alberto De Stefani]]. The government undertook a low-key [[laissez-faire]] program - the tax system was restructured (February 1925 law, 23 June 1927 [[decree-law]], etc.), there were attempts to attract foreign investment and establish trade agreements, efforts were made to balance the budget and cut subsidies. The 10% tax on capital invested in banking and industrial sectors was repealed,<ref name=Guerin2> [[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Fascism and Big Business]]'', Chapter IX, Second section, p.193 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions </ref> while the tax on directors and administrators of [[S.A. (corporation)|anonymous companies (SA)]] was cut down by half.<ref name=Guerin2/> All foreign capital was exonerated of taxes, while the [[luxury tax]] was also repealed.<ref name=Guerin2/> Mussolini also opposed [[municipalization]] of enterprises.<ref name=Guerin2> [[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Fascism and Big Business]]'', Chapter IX, Second section, p.193 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions </ref> The 19 April 1923 law abandoned [[life insurance]] to private companies, repealing the 1912 law which had created a State Institute for insurances and which had envisioned to give a state monopoly ten years later.<ref name=Guerin> [[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Fascism and Big Business]]'', Chapter IX, First section, p.191 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions </ref> Furthermore, a 19 November 1922 decree suppressed the Commission on [[War profiteering|War Profits]], while the 20 August 1923 law suppressed the [[inheritance tax]] inside the family circle.<ref name=Guerin2> [[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Fascism and Big Business]]'', Chapter IX, Second section, p.193 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions </ref> There was a general emphasis on what has been called [[productivism]] - national economic growth as a means of social regeneration and wider assertion of national importance. Up until 1925, the country enjoyed modest growth but structural weaknesses increased inflation and the currency slowly fell (1922 L90 to £1, 1925 L145 to £1). In 1925 there was a great increase in speculation and short runs against the [[lira]]. The levels of capital movement became so great the government attempted to intervene. De Stefani was sacked, his program side-tracked, and the Fascist government became more involved in the economy in step with the increased security of their power. In 1925, the Italian state abandoned its monopoly on telephones' infrastructure, while the state production of matches was handed over to a private "Consortium of matches' productors."<ref name=Guerin/> In some sectors, the state did intervene. Thus, following the deflation crisis which started in 1926, banks such as the ''[[Banca di Roma]]'', the ''[[Banca di Napoli]]'' or the ''[[Banca di Sicilia]]'' were assisted by the state.<ref name=Guerin3> [[Daniel Guérin]], ''[[Fascism and Big Business]]'', Chapter IX, Fifth section, p.197 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions </ref> Fascists were most vocal in their opposition to [[finance capitalism]], [[interest]] charging, and profiteering.<ref>Frank Bealey & others. Elements of Political Science. Edinburgh University Press, 1999, p. 202</ref> Some fascists, particularly [[Nazism|Nazis]], considered finance capitalism a "[[Parasitism|parasitic]]" "[[anti-Semitism|Jewish conspiracy]]".<ref>[[Moishe Postone|Postone, Moishe]]. 1986. "Anti-Semitism and National Socialism." ''Germans & Jews Since the Holocaust: The Changing Situation in West Germany'', ed. Anson Rabinbach and Jack Zipes. New York: Homes & Meier.</ref> Nevertheless, fascists also opposed [[Marxism]] and independent [[trade union]]s. According to sociologist [[Stanislav Andreski]], fascist economics "foreshadowed most of the fundamental features of the economic system of [[Western Europe]]an countries today: the radical extension of government control over the economy without a wholesale expropriation of the capitalists but with a good dose of nationalisation, price control, incomes policy, managed currency, massive state investment, attempts at overall planning (less effectual than the Fascist because of the weakness of authority)."<ref name = "Andreski-p64"/> Politics professor Stephen Haseler credits fascism with providing a model of economic planning for [[social democracy]].<ref>Stephen Haseler. The Death of British Democracy: Study of Britain's Political Present and Future. Prometheus Books 1976. p. 153</ref> In Nazi economic planning, in place of ordinary profit incentive to guide the economy, investment was guided through regulation to accord to the needs of the State. The profit incentive for business owners was retained, though greatly modified through various profit-fixing schemes: "Fixing of profits, not their suppression, was the official policy of the Nazi party." However the function of profit in automatically guiding allocation of investment and unconsciously directing the course of the economy was replaced with economic planning by Nazi government agencies.<ref>{{citation | author = Arthur Scheweitzer | title = Profits Under Nazi Planning | journal = The Quarterly Journal of Economics | volume = Vol. 61, No. 1 | pages = 5 | date = Nov., 1946}}</ref> ==Anti-communism== {{Disputed-section|date=March 2008}} {{main|Anti-communism}} The [[October Revolution|Russian Revolution]] inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy, with a [[Biennio rosso|wave of factory occupations]]. Most historians view fascism as a response to these developments, as a movement that both tried to appeal to the working class and divert them from Marxism. It also appealed to capitalists as a bulwark against [[Bolshevism]]. Italian fascism took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist-led unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable ([[Marxist philosopher]] [[Antonio Gramsci]] popularized the conception that fascism was the Capital's response to the organized [[workers' movement]]). Mussolini took power during the 1922 [[March on Rome]]. Throughout Europe, numerous [[aristocracy|aristocrats]], conservative intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries that emulated Italian Fascism. In Germany, numerous right-wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war [[Freikorps]] used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Bavarian Soviet Republic. With the worldwide [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, [[liberalism]] and the liberal form of capitalism seemed doomed, and Communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought frequently, the most notable example of the conflict being the [[Spanish Civil War]]. This war became a [[proxy war]] between the fascist countries and their international supporters — who backed [[Francisco Franco]] — and the worldwide Communist movement, which was aided by the Soviet Union and which allied uneasily with [[Anarchism|anarchists]] — who backed the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]]. Initially, the Soviet Union supported a coalition with the western powers against Nazi Germany and popular fronts in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy largely failed due to distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The [[Munich Agreement]] between Germany, [[France]] and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers endeavored to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The lack of eagerness on the part of the British during diplomatic negotiations with the Soviets served to make the situation even worse. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a [[non-aggression pact]] known as the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939. [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] claims in his memoirs that the Soviets believed this agreement was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. Stalin expected the Germans not to attack until 1942, but the pact ended in 1941 when [[Nazism|Nazi]] Germany invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]]. Fascism and communism reverted to being deadly enemies. The war, in the eyes of both sides, was a war between ideologies. Even within socialist and communist circles, theoreticians debated the nature of fascism. Communist theoretician [[Rajani Palme Dutt]] crafted one view that stressed the [[crisis of capitalism]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Rajani Palme Dutt: Fascism | work=Fascism and Social Revolution: A Study of the economics and Politics of the Extreme Stages of Capitalism in Decay (1934) | url=http://www.plp.org/books/Dutt.html | accessmonthday=November 5 | accessyear=2006}}</ref> [[Leon Trotsky]], an early leader in the Russian Revolution, believed that fascism occurs when "the workers' organizations are annihilated; that the proletariat is reduced to an amorphous state; and that a system of administration is created which penetrates deeply into the masses and which serves to frustrate the independent crystallization of the proletariat."<ref>{{cite web | title=LEON TROTSKY: Fascism | work=Fascism: What It Is and How to Fight It | url=http://marx.org/archive/trotsky/works/1944/1944-fas.htm | accessmonthday=November 6 | accessyear=2006}}</ref> ==Fascism, sexuality, and gender roles== {{see|Gender role}} [[Image:Rsi f.jpg|thumb|A poster depicting a woman kissing the [[Italian Social Republic]] war flag.]] There has been a revival of interest in recent times, among many academic historians, with regard to the so-called "cult of masculinity" that permeated fascism, the attempts to systematically control female sexuality and reproductive behavior for the ends of the State.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Italian fascists viewed increasing the birthrate of Italy as a major goal of their regime, with Mussolini launching a program, called the 'Battle For Births', to almost double the country's population. The [[gender role|exclusive role]] assigned to women within the State was to be mothers and not workers or soldiers;<ref>Durham, Martin: ''Women and Fascism'', Routledge 1998, ISBN 0-415-12280-5</ref> however, Mussolini did not practice what some of his supporters preached. From an early stage, he gave women high positions within Fascism, and in Germany, the leader of one of the major feminist organizations pleaded with Hitler to be incorporated into the Nazi Party as early as 1928.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Fascists have generally been opposed to the concept of [[women's rights]] per se, preferring the traditions of [[chivalry]] to guide male-female relations.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} According to Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin, "The crucial element of fascism is its explicit sexual language, what [[Klaus Theweleit|Theweleit]] calls 'the conscious coding' or the 'over-explicitness of the fascist language of symbol.' This fascist symbolization creates a particular kind of psychic economy which places sexuality in the service of destruction. According to this intellectual theory, despite its sexually-charged politics, fascism is an anti-[[Eros (love)|eros]], 'the core of all fascist propaganda is a battle against everything that constitutes enjoyment and pleasure'… He shows that in this world of war the repudiation of one's own body, of femininity, becomes a psychic compulsion which associates masculinity with hardness, destruction, and self-denial."<ref>{{cite book | first=Klaus| last=Theweleit| coauthors= Erica Carter, Anson Rabinbach, Chris Turner (Translator), Anson Rabinbach | title=Male Fantasies, Volume 2: Male Bodies&mdash;Psychoanalyzing the White Terror (Theory and History of Literature, Volume 23) | publisher=University of Minnesota Press | location=United States| year=1989 | editor= | id=ISBN 0-8166-1451-2}}</ref> ==References== ===Notes=== {{reflist|2}} ===Bibliography=== ====Primary sources==== <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[Giovanni Gentile|Gentile, Giovanni]]. 1932. ''[[The Doctrine of Fascism]]''. [[Enciclopedia Italiana]]. * [[António de Oliveira Salazar|de Oliveira Salazar, António ]]. 1939. ''Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928-1939.'' Faber and Faber. * [[Oswald Mosley|Mosley, Sir Oswald]]. 1968. ''[[My Life (Sir Oswald Mosley autobiography)|My Life]]''. Nelson Publications. *[[José Antonio Primo de Rivera|de Rivera, José Antonio Primo]]. 1971. ''Textos de Doctrina Politica''. Madrid. * [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini, Benito]]. 1998. ''My Rise And Fall ''. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306808641 * [[Galeazzo Ciano|Ciano, Galezzo]]. 2001. ''The Ciano Diaries, 1939—1943''. Simon Publications. ISBN 1931313741 * [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini, Benito]]. 2006. ''My Autobiography: With "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism"''. Dover Publications. ISBN 0486447774 </div> ====Secondary sources==== <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]]. 1976. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ia2BdNGHRYoC&pg=PP1&dq=Fascism+:+an+informal+introduction+to+its+theory+and+practice&lr=&sig=ACfU3U1uWnBOMKbE48eeyWoDBvGW1UIe5Q Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice]''. Transaction Books. ISBN 0878556192 * [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]]. 1977. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=V7uxAAAACAAJ&dq=Interpretations+of+Fascism Interpretations of Fascism]''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674459628. * Ben-Am, Shlomo. 1983. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yvSEAAAAIAAJ&q=%224th+of+August+regime%22&dq=%224th+of+August+regime%22&lr=&pgis=1 Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930]''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198225962 * [[Stanley Payne|Payne, Stanley G]]. 1987. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mgDWLYcTYIAC&dq=Francisco+Franco+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 The Franco Regime, 1936-1975]''. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702 * Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. 1988. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mT5DO_cVSfMC&dq=Popular+Autocracy+in+Greece,+1936-1941:+A+Political+Biography+of+General+Ioannis+Metaxas&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas]''. Routledge. ISBN 0714648698 * [[Stanley Payne|Payne, Stanley G]]. 1995. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&dq=A+History+of+Fascism+payne&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 A History of Fascism, 1914-45]''. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742 *Costa Pinto, António. 1995. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Z8Y9AAAACAAJ&dq=Salazar%27s+Dictatorship+and+European+Fascism:+Problems+of+Interpretation&lr= Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation]''. Social Science Monographs. ISBN 0880339683 *Griffiths, Richard. 2001. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Y668AAAACAAJ&dq=Griffiths,+Richard+Fascism An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism]''. Duckworth. ISBN 0715629182 *Lewis, Paul H. 2002. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=z3fgxOPSBb4C&dq=Latin+Fascist+Elites&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes]''. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027597880X * [[Stanley Payne|Payne, Stanley G]]. 2003. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=rsHyAAAACAAJ&dq=Spanish+Fascism&lr= Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism]''. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758134452 * [[Robert Paxton|Paxton, Robert O]]. 2005. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oGMfAAAACAAJ&dq=The+Anatomy+of+Fascism The Anatomy of Fascism]''. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400033918 * [[Roger Eatwell|Eatwell, Roger]]. 1996. ''Fascism: A History.'' New York: Allen Lane. *[[Ernst Nolte|Nolte, Ernst]] ''The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism'', translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965. * [[Wilhelm Reich|Reich, Wilhelm]]. 1970. ''The Mass Psychology of Fascism''. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. * [[George Seldes|Seldes, George]]. 1935. ''Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism''. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. * [[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]] ''Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism'',London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007 * Kallis, Aristotle A. ," To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr., 2003), pp. 237-260. *[[Peter Fritzsche|Fritzsche, Peter]]. 1990. ''Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5 * [[Roger Griffin|Griffin, Roger]]. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) ''Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991'', Routledge, London. * [[Walter Laqueur|Laqueur, Walter]]. 1966. ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future,'' New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X *Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pages 404-424 from ''The American Historical Review'', Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967. * [[Zeev Sternhell|Sternhell, Zeev]] with [[Mario Sznajder]] and [[Maia Asheri]]. [1989] 1994. ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution.'', Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue [[2 June]] [[2006]] , pages 227 – 250 * [[Roger Griffin|Griffin, Roger]]. 1991. ''The Nature of Fascism''. New York: St. Martin’s Press. * [[Eugen Weber|Weber, Eugen]]. [1964] [[1985]]. ''Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century,'' New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.) </div> ==External links== {{wiktionary}} {{wikiquote}} {{portal}} * [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm The Doctrine of Fascism] {{Ideologies}} {{fascism_footer}} {{Autocratic}} [[Category:Fascism| ]] [[Category:Politics of Italy]] [[Category:Political ideologies]] [[Category:Political systems]] [[Category:Syncretic political movements]] [[Category:Concepts (nationalism studies)]] {{Link FA|es}} [[ar:فاشية]] [[an:Faxismo]] [[ast:Fascismu]] [[zh-min-nan:Fasci-chú-gī]] [[be-x-old:Фашызм]] [[bs:Fašizam]] [[bg:Фашизъм]] [[ca:Feixisme]] [[cs:Fašismus]] [[cy:Ffasgiaeth]] [[da:Fascisme]] [[de:Faschismus]] [[et:Fašism]] [[el:Φασισμός]] [[es:Fascismo]] [[eo:Faŝismo]] [[eu:Faxismo]] [[fa:فاشیسم]] [[fr:Fascisme]] [[fur:Fassisim]] [[ga:Faisisteachas]] [[gl:Fascismo]] [[ko:파시즘]] [[hi:फ़ासी वाद]] [[hr:Fašizam]] [[id:Fasisme]] [[is:Fasismi]] [[it:Fascismo]] [[he:פשיזם]] [[ka:ფაშიზმი]] [[ku:Faşîzm]] [[la:Fascismus]] [[lv:Fašisms]] [[lt:Fašizmas]] [[hu:Fasizmus]] [[mk:Фашизам]] [[mdf:Фашизма]] [[ms:Fasisme]] [[mn:Фашизм]] [[nl:Fascisme]] [[ja:ファシズム]] [[no:Fascisme]] [[nn:Fascisme]] [[oc:Faissisme]] [[pl:Faszyzm]] [[pt:Fascismo]] [[ro:Fascism]] [[ru:Фашизм]] [[scn:Fascismu]] [[simple:Fascism]] [[sk:Fašizmus]] [[sl:Fašizem]] [[sr:Фашизам]] [[sh:Fašizam]] [[fi:Fasismi]] [[sv:Fascism]] [[tl:Pasismo]] [[ta:பாசிசம்]] [[th:ลัทธิฟาสซิสต์]] [[vi:Chủ nghĩa phát xít]] [[tg:Фашизм]] [[tr:Faşizm]] [[uk:Фашизм]] [[vec:Fasismo]] [[yi:פאשיזם]] [[zh-yue:法西斯主義]] [[zh:法西斯主义]]