Fight-or-flight response 470843 224840027 2008-07-10T17:27:42Z Arno Matthias 1908830 /* Psychology of the stress response */ see discussion '''{{Refimprove|date=February 2007}} {{Mergefrom|Prey drive#Fight or Flight|Talk:Prey drive#Prey drive vs. Predator drive|date=February 2008}} The '''fight-or-flight response''', also called the '''''fright'', fight or flight response''', '''hyperarousal''' or the '''acute stress response''', was first described by [[Walter Cannon]] in 1915.<ref>[http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/cannon_walter.html harvardsquarelibrary: W. B. Cannon ''Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement'', Appleton, New York, 1915]</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Cannon | first = Walter | authorlink = Walter Cannon | coauthors = | title = Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage | publisher = Appleton | date = 1929 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = }}</ref> His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], priming the animal for [[fighting]] or fleeing. This response was later recognized as the first stage of a [[general adaptation syndrome]] that regulates [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] responses among vertebrates and other organisms. == Biology of the stress response == Normally, when a person is in a serene, unstimulated state, the "firing" of [[neuron]]s in the [[locus ceruleus]] is minimal. A novel [[stimulus (physiology)|stimulus]] (which could include a perception of danger or an environmental [[stressor]] such as elevated sound levels or over-illumination), once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the [[hypothalamus]] to the [[brain stem]]. That route of signaling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment. Similarly, an abundance of [[catecholamines]] at [[receptor (biochemistry)|neuroreceptor]] sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviors often related to combat or escape{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. If a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the [[autonomic nervous system]] (Thase & Howland, 1995). This activation is associated with specific physiological actions in the system, both directly and indirectly through the release of [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) and to a lesser extent [[norepinephrine]] from the [[adrenal medulla|medulla]] of the [[adrenal glands]]. The release is triggered by [[acetylcholine]] released from preganglionic sympathetic nerves. The other major factor in the acute stress response is the [[hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]] (Sternberg 2001). == Physiology of the stress response == These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action. (Gleitman, et al, 2004) These include the following: * Acceleration of heart and lung action * [[Inhibition]] of stomach and intestinal action * General effect on the [[sphincters]] of the body * Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body * Liberation of nutrients for muscular action * Dilation of blood vessels for muscles * Inhibition of [[Lacrimal gland]] (responsible for tear production) and salivation * [[Pupillary response|Dilation of pupil]] * Relaxation of bladder * Inhibition of erection * Auditory Exclusion (loss of hearing) * Tunnel Vision (loss of peripheral vision) == Psychology of the stress response == A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra, calmly maintaining [[homeostasis]]. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The [[sympathetic nervous system]]’s activation provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, [[piloerection]] (hair standing on end, normally for conservation of heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal (Gleitman et al, 2004). Though Cannon, who first proposed the idea of fight-or-flight, provided considerable evidence of these responses in various animals, it subsequently became apparent that his theory of response was too simplistic. Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Others have more exotic self-protection methods. Some species of fish change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture in either a physical way or in a sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation. The fight or flight actions also have polarity - the individual can fight or fly against or away from something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight or fly for or towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore of a raging river. A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage. == Behavioral manifestations of fight-or-flight == In prehistoric times when the fight or flight response evolved, fight was manifested in aggressive, combative behavior and flight was manifested by fleeing potentially threatening situations, such as being confronted by a predator. In current times, these responses persist, but fight and flight responses have assumed a wider range of behaviors. For example, the fight response may be manifested in angry, argumentative behavior, and the flight response may be manifested through social withdrawal, substance abuse, and even television viewing (Friedman & Silver 2007). Behaviorally, the fight or flight response describes men’s reactions to stressful situations better than women’s [http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html]. That is, men are more likely to cope with stress via social withdrawal, substance abuse, and aggression. Some researchers believe that these aspects of the fight or flight response in men contribute to their earlier mortality, relative to women. Women are more likely to cope with stress through social support, that is, by turning to others to both give and receive instrumental and emotional aid. This pattern of responding has been called “tend and befriend,” and refers to the fact that during stressful times, women are especially likely to show protective responses toward their offspring and affiliate with others for shared social responses to threat (Taylor et al, 2000). This can also be explained as being the tendency of men to direct their fight or flight actions in an "against" or "away from" manner, while women tend to direct their actions in a "for" or "towards" manner. == Negative effects of the stress response in humans == Although the emergency measure of the stress response is undoubtedly both vital and valuable, it can also be disruptive and damaging. In most modern situations, humans rarely encounter emergencies that require physical effort, yet our biology still provides for them. Thus we may find our stress response activated in situations where physical action is inappropriate. This activation takes a toll on both our bodies and our minds. Also, simple stresses that can be acted upon quickly are more easily overcome allowing the body to return to homeostasis, but with the more complex stresses of modern societies, with many factors and individuals involved, the danger may seem unavoidable and stress may continue indefinitely, which ends up compromising the system rather than helping the system. Disruption of the sexual response and the digestive system are common negative results. Diarrhea, constipation, and difficulty maintaining sexual arousal are typical examples. These are functions which are controlled by the [[parasympathetic nervous system]] and therefore suppressed by sympathetic arousal. Prolonged stress responses may result in chronic suppression of the immune system, leaving the sufferer vulnerable to infection by bacteria and viruses. Repeated stress responses can be caused not only by real threats, but also by mental disorders such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], in which the individual shows a stress response when remembering a past trauma, and [[panic disorder]], in which the stress response is activated apparently by nothing.''' ==See also== * [[Acute stress reaction]] * [[Emotional dysregulation]] * [[Panic attack]] * [[Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] * [[Stressor]] * [[Tend and befriend]] * [[Vasoconstriction]] ==External links== * [http://www.octc.kctcs.edu/gcaplan/anat/Notes/API%20Notes%20M%20Autonomic%20Nervous%20System.htm Anatomy and Physiology I notes] from [http://www.octc.kctcs.edu/ Owensboro community college]. * [http://defendyourself101.ca/articles/why-you-should-talk-lawyer-talking-police Why you should talk to a lawyer before talking to the police...] A review of the effects of high stress due to violence (called either critical incident stress, CIS or Sympathetic Nervous System Stress, SNS) and how stress impacts on witness statements to police. ==References== <div class='references-small'> <references/> </div> {{USGovernment|sourceURL=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec2_1.html}} *Friedman, H. S., & Silver, R. C. (Eds.) (2007). Foundations of Health Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. *Taylor, S.E., Klein, L.C., Lewis, B.P., Gruenewald, T.L., Gurung, R.A.R., & Updegraff, J.A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411-429. * {{cite book |last= Thase |first= M.E. |coauthors= R.H. Howland |chapter= Biological processes in depression: An updated review and integration |editor= Beckham & Leber |title= Handbook of Depression |publisher= Guilford Press |date= 1995 |location=NY }} * {{cite book |last= Gleitman |first= Henry |coauthors= Alan J. Fridlund, Daniel Reisberg |title= Psychology |edition= 6 |year= 2004 |publisher= Norton |location= NY |id= ISBN 0-393-97767-6 }} *Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994. Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers. W.H. Freeman and Company. *Sternberg, Esther, 2001. ''The Balance Within: The Science Connecting Health and Emotions''. W.H. Freeman and Company, 76,77,96-98. [[Category:Nervous system]] [[Category:Stress]] [[ar:الكر والفر]] [[de:Fight-or-flight]] [[he:תגובת הילחם או ברח]] [[nl:Vecht- of vluchtreactie]] [[pt:Reação de lutar ou fugir]]