Flower 4576465 225034371 2008-07-11T15:53:21Z NawlinWiki 301395 Changed protection level for "[[Flower]]": no reason to move this page w/o discussion [edit=autoconfirmed:move=sysop] {{other uses}} [[Image:Li Song, Basket of Flowers.jpg|thumb|250px|Painting of a Chinese [[flower bouquet]], by Southern Song artist Li Song. Ink and color on [[silk]], late 12<sup>th</sup>-early 13<sup>th</sup> century.]] A '''flower''', also known as a bloom or [[blossom]], is the [[reproduction|reproductive]] structure found in [[flowering plant]]s (plants of the division [[Magnoliophyta]], also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization, leading to the formation and dispersal of the seeds. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. The grouping of flowers on a plant are called the [[inflorescence]]. In addition to serving as the reproductive organs of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans, mainly to beautify their environment but also as a source of food. ==Flower specialization and pollination== [[Image:Flower poster 2.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A poster with twelve species of flowers or clusters of flowers of different families]] Each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of its [[pollen]]. [[Cleistogamy|Cleistogamous flower]]s are self pollinated, after which, they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers. [[Entomophily|Entomophilous flower]]s attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Flowers commonly have glands called [[nectar]]ies on their various parts that attract these animals. Some flowers have patterns, called [[Nectar_guide|nectar guides]], that show pollinators where to look for nectar. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the [[stamen]]s that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the [[stigma]]s—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. [[Anemophily|Anemophilous flower]]s use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in [[protein]] (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects. ==Morphology== Flowering plants are ''heterosporangiate'', producing two types of reproductive [[spore]]s. The [[pollen]] (male spores) and [[ovule]]s (female spores) are produced in different [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], but the typical flower is a ''bisporangiate strobilus'' in that it contains both organs. A flower is regarded as a modified [[Plant stem|stem]] with shortened internodes and bearing, at its [[node (botany)|nodes]], structures that may be highly modified [[leaf|leaves]].<ref>Eames, A. J. (1961) Morphology of the Angiosperms McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.</ref> In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or ''axis'' with an apical [[meristem]] that does not grow continuously (growth is ''determinate''). Flowers may be attached to the plant in a few ways. If the flower has no stem but forms in the axil of a leaf, it is called sessile. When one flower is produced, the stem holding the flower is called a [[peduncle (botany)|peduncle]]. If the peduncle ends with groups of flowers, each stem that holds a flower is called a [[pedicel (botany)|pedicel]]. The flowering stem forms a terminal end which is called the ''torus'' or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in [[whorl]]s on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows: {| align="right" |- |[[Image:Mature flower diagram.svg|thumb|400px|Diagram showing the main parts of a mature flower]] |- |[[Image:Sarracenia flower notitles.svg|400px|thumb|The umbrella style flower of the [[Sarracenia]] genus.]] |} [[Image:Crateva religiosa.jpg|thumb|An example of a perfect flower, this ''[[Crateva religiosa]]'' flower has both stamens (outer ring) and a pistil (center).]] *''[[sepal| Calyx]]'': the outer whorl of ''[[sepal]]s''; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species. *''[[:wiktionary:Corolla|Corolla]]'': the whorl of ''[[petal]]s'', which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of [[pollination]]. *''[[Androecium]]'' (from Greek ''andros oikia'': man's house): one or two whorls of [[stamen]]s, each a [[filament]] topped by an [[anther]] where [[pollen]] is produced. Pollen contains the male [[gamete]]s. *''[[Gynoecium]]'' (from Greek ''gynaikos oikia'': woman's house): one or more [[pistil]]s. The female reproductive organ is the [[carpel]]: this contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called ''apocarpous''). The sticky tip of the pistil, the [[stigma]], is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for [[pollen tube]]s to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material. Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: [[dicotyledon]]s typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and [[monocotyledon]]s having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots. In the majority of species individual flowers have both [[pistil]]s and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being ''perfect'', ''bisexual'', or ''[[hermaphrodite]]''. However, in some species of plants the flowers are ''imperfect'' or ''unisexual'': having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either female or male the species is regarded as ''[[Plant sexuality|dioecious]]''. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is considered ''[[Plant sexuality|monoecious]]''. Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis—so-called ''composite flowers''—the collection of flowers is termed an ''[[inflorescence]]''; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a ‘‘flower’’ is. In botanical terminology, a single [[daisy]] or [[sunflower]] for example, is not a flower but a flower ''[[head (botany)|head]]''—an inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced—the flower is called regular or actinomorphic, e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids. === Floral formula === A ''floral formula'' is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant [[family (biology)|family]] rather than a particular species. The following representations are used: '''Ca''' = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca<sup>5</sup> = 5 sepals)<br> '''Co''' = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co<sup>3(x)</sup> = petals some multiple of three )<br> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;'''Z''' = add if ''zygomorphic'' (e.g., CoZ<sup>6</sup> = zygomorphic with 6 petals)<br> '''A''' = ''androecium'' (whorl of stamens; e.g., A<sup>∞</sup> = many stamens)<br> '''G''' = ''gynoecium'' (carpel or carpels; e.g., G<sup>1</sup> = monocarpous)<br> ''x'': to represent a "variable number"<br> ∞: to represent "many"<br> A floral formula would appear something like this: :'''Ca<sup>5</sup>Co<sup>5</sup>A<sup>10 - ∞</sup>G<sup>1</sup>''' Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see [http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/courses/systematics/key.html Key to Floral Formulas]). ==Pollination== [[Image:Bees Collecting Pollen cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits]] {{main|pollination}} The primary purpose of a flower is [[reproduction]]. Flowers are the reproductive organs and mediate the joining of the sperm contained within pollen to the ovules, normally from one plant to another but many plants also can pollinate their own flowers. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for [[adaptation]]. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors to move pollen between flowers, including the wind and animals, especially [[insect]]s. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and [[pygmy possum]]s can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called ''anthesis''. ===Attraction methods=== [[Image:Ophrys apifera flower1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ophrys apifera|Bee orchid]] [[evolution|evolved]] to mimic a female bee to attracts male bee pollinators]]Plants can not move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called ''entomophilous''; literally "insect-loving" in Latin. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by [[co-evolution]]. Flowers commonly have glands called ''nectaries'' on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious [[nectar]]. [[Bird]]s and [[bee]]s having color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called [[nectar guide]]s, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under [[ultraviolet]] light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by [[odor|scent]] and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called [[Carrion flower]]s including ''[[Rafflesia]]'', the [[titan arum]], and the North American [[pawpaw]] (''Asimina triloba''). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate. ===Pollination mechanism=== The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized. Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods: ''Entomophilous'': flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the ''[[Sarracenia#Flowers|Sarracenia]]'' or [[Lady's Slipper|lady-slipper orchid]]s, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing [[self-pollination]]. [[Image:Grass Anthers.JPG|left|thumb|<Center>Anthers detached from a Meadow Foxtail flower.]] [[Image:Flowering Grass.JPG|right|thumb|<Center>A grass flower head (Meadow Foxtail) showing the plain coloured flowers with large anthers.]] ''Anemophilous'': flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the [[Poaceae|grasses]], Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in [[protein]] (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to [[insect]]s, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn ([[maize]]) pollen, though it is of little value to them. Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers. <!--Not sure where to stick this info from the old article yet. There is much confusion about the role of flowers in allergies. For example the showy and entomophilous [[goldenrod]] (''Solidago'') is frequently blamed for [[hay fever|respiratory allergies]], of which it is innocent, since its pollen cannot be airborne. Instead the [[allergen]] is usually the pollen of the contemporary bloom of anemophilous [[ragweed]] (''Ambrosia''), which can drift for many kilometers.--> ===Flower-pollinator relationships=== Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of [[coevolution]], as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs. This close relationship compounds the negative effects of [[extinction]]. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some [[endangered species|endangered plant species]] are so because of [[pollinator decline|shrinking pollinator populations]]. ==Fertilization and dispersal== {{main|biological dispersal}} [[Image:Red Flower.JPG|thumb|In this picture the stamens of the flower are clearly visible.]] Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many [[dandelion]]s. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: [[Plant sexuality]]). ==Evolution== [[Image:Kamakuraflower.jpg|thumb|right|Flowers in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa]], [[Japan]]]] While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones [[plant sexuality|reproduced]] by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: [[spore]]s. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out genetic [[clones]] of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the [[seed]], though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the [[ginkgo]] and [[conifer]]s. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, ''[[Archaefructus|Archaefructus liaoningensis]]'', is dated about 125 million years old.<ref> [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/flower/anatomy.html Flowers Modern & Ancient] </ref> Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly [[seed fern]]s, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by [[Charles Darwin]]. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as ''Archaefructus'', along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Recent [[DNA]] analysis ([[molecular systematics]])<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3405_flower.html First Flower]</ref><ref>[http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/6/997 Amborella not a "basal angiosperm"? Not so fast]</ref> show that [[Amborella|''Amborella trichopoda'']], found on the Pacific island of [[New Caledonia]], is the [[sister group]] to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/uoca-spp051506.php South Pacific plant may be missing link in evolution of flowering plants]</ref> suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. [[Image:Flores.gif|thumb|right|Various flower colors and shapes]] [[Image:Syrphid fly on Grape hyacinth.jpg|thumb|A [[Syrphid fly]] on a [[Grape hyacinth]]]] The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way [[fig wasp]]s do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. [[Island genetics]] is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Likewise, most [[fruit]] used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains. While many such [[symbiotic relationship]]s remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, [[oleanane]], has been detected in fossil plants that old, including [[gigantopterid]]s<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/04/010403071438.htm Oily Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers]</ref>, which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of [[petrified wood|petrification]]. The similarity in [[leaf]] and [[Plant stem|stem]] structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.<ref>[http://unisci.com/stories/20012/0615015.htm Age-Old Question On Evolution Of Flowers Answered]</ref> The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be [[bisexual]] (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the [[ovary (plants)|ovary]] (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/othernews/050526_flower_power.html Human Affection Altered Evolution of Flowers]</ref> == Development == [[Image:ABC flower development.svg|thumb|120px|The ABC model of flower development.]] The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral [[meristem]]. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of [[homeotic]] mutants in ''[[Arabidopsis]] thaliana'' and snapdragon, ''[[Antirrhinum majus]]''. For example, when there is a loss of B-gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also [[The ABC Model of Flower Development]]. Most genes central in this model belong to the [[MADS-box]] genes and are [[transcription factors]] that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ. === Flowering transition === The [[transition]] to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure maximal [[reproductive]] success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of [[plant hormones]] and seasonable [[temperature]] and [[photoperiod]] changes. Many perennial and most biennial plants require [[vernalization]] to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time that is favorable for [[fertilization]] and the formation of [[seeds]].<ref>Ausin et al (2005), Environmental regulation of flowering. Int J Dev Biol. 2005;49(5-6):689-705</ref> Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, [[bud]] and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and [[carpel]]s. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental [[cue]].<ref>http://www.genesdev.org/cgi/content/abstract/20/7/898?ck=nck</ref> Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower. ==Symbolism== {| align="right" |- |[[Image:Liliumbulbiferumflowertop.jpg|thumb|250px|Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection]] |- |[[Image:flordeju.svg|thumb|Flowers inspire decorative motifs]] |- |[[Image:Ambrosius Bosschaert, the Elder 04.jpg|thumb|250px|Flowers are common subjects of still lifes, such as this one by [[Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder]]]] |- |[[Image:Jade ornament with grape design.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chinese [[Jade]] ornament with flower design, [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]] ([[1115]]-[[1234]] AD), [[Shanghai Museum]].]] |- |[[Image:boysmellsflower.jpg|thumb|250px|Flowers are beloved for their various fragrances]] |} Many flowers have important [[symbol]]ic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as [[floriography]]. Some of the more common examples include: * Red [[rose]]s are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion. * [[Poppy|Poppies]] are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war. * [[Iris (plant)|Irises]]/[[Lily]] are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining. * [[Asteraceae|Daisies]] are a symbol of innocence. Flowers within art are also representative of the [[female genitalia]], as seen in the works of artists such as [[Georgia O'Keefe]], [[Imogen Cunningham]], [[Veronica Ruiz de Velasco]], and [[Judy Chicago]], and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with [[female|femininity]]. The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century [[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] era. Famous examples include [[William Wordsworth]]'s ''[[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud]]'' and [[William Blake]]'s ''Ah! Sun-Flower''. Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as [[Vincent van Gogh|Van Gogh]]'s [[sunflowers (series of paintings)|sunflowers]] series or [[Claude Monet|Monet]]'s water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of [[flower art]]. The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is [[Flora (goddess)|Flora]]. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is [[Chloris]]. In [[Hindu]] mythology, flowers have a significant status. [[Vishnu]], one of the three major gods in the [[Hindu]] system, is often depicted standing straight on a [[lotus]] flower.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/deities/vishnu.shtml Vishnu]</ref> Apart from the association with [[Vishnu]], the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.<ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1999/7/1999-7-13.shtml Hinduism Today: God's Favorite Flower]</ref> For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.<ref>[http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/sunrise/49-99-0/ge-mrook.htm The Lotus]</ref> ==Usage== In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and [[odor|smell]]. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime: * For new births or [[Christening]]s * As a [[corsage]] or [[boutonniere]] to be worn at social functions or for holidays * As tokens of love or esteem * For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall * As brightening decorations within the home * As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts * For [[funeral]] flowers and expressions of [[sympathy]] for the grieving People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to [[flower garden]]s, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from [[florist]]s who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade. Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts ([[seed]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[root]]s, [[plant stem|stem]]s and [[leaf|leaves]]) but they provide several important foods and [[spice]]s. Flower vegetables include [[broccoli]], [[cauliflower]] and [[artichoke]]. The most expensive spice, [[saffron]], consists of dried stigmas of a [[crocus]]. Other flower spices are [[clove]]s and [[caper]]s. [[Hops]] flowers are used to flavor [[beer]]. [[Marigold]] flowers are fed to [[chicken]]s to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. [[Dandelion]] flowers are often made into wine. Bee [[Pollen]], pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. [[Honey]] consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. [[orange (fruit)|orange]] blossom honey, [[clover]] honey and [[tupelo]] honey. Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. [[Squash (fruit)|Squash]] flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include [[nasturtium]], [[chrysanthemum]], [[carnation]], [[cattail]], [[honeysuckle]], [[chicory]], [[cornflower]], [[Canna (plant)|Canna]], and [[sunflower]]. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as [[daisy]] and [[rose]] (you may also come across a candied [[pansy]]). Flowers can also be made into [[herbal tea]]s. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with [[camellia sinensis|tea]] leaves for the added fragrance. ==See also== * [[Plants]] * [[List of garden plants]] * [[Plant sexuality]] * [[Garden]] * [[:Category:Gardening|Gardening]] * [[Sowing]] * [[Evolution of plants]] * [[Plant evolutionary developmental biology]] ==References== {{reflist|1}} * Eames, A. J. (1961) ''Morphology of the Angiosperms'' McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. * Esau, Katherine (1965) ''Plant Anatomy'' (2nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons, New York. {{wiktionary|flower}} {{commons-gallery| flowers|R=true}} {{commonscat|Flowers}} ==External links== * [http://wildflower.utexas.edu/ Native Plant Information Network] * [http://www.gardenguide-uk.co.uk/garden-flower-colours.html Garden Guide UK - Information on Flowers and Colours] {{-}} {{Botany}} [[Category:Flowers|*]] [[Category:Gardening]] [[Category:plant morphology]] [[Category:Plant sexuality]] [[Category:Reproductive system]] [[Category:Pollination]] {{Link FA|nah}} [[zh-yue:花]] [[ar:زهرة]] [[gn:Yvoty]] [[ay:Panqara]] [[az:Çiçək]] [[zh-min-nan:Hoe]] [[bo:མེ་ཏོག་]] [[bg:Цвете]] [[ca:Flor]] [[cs:Květ]] [[cy:Blodeuyn]] [[da:Blomst]] [[de:Blume]] [[et:Õis]] [[el:Άνθος]] [[es:Flor]] [[eo:Floro]] [[fa:گل (گیاه)]] [[fr:Fleur]] [[gl:Flor]] [[ko:꽃]] [[hr:Cvijet]] [[io:Floro]] [[id:Bunga]] [[iu:ᐱᕈᖅᑐᓴᔭᖅ/piruqtusajaq]] [[is:Blóm]] [[it:Fiore]] [[he:פרח]] [[la:Flos]] [[lt:Žiedas]] [[hu:Virág]] [[mk:Цвет]] [[ms:Bunga]] [[nah:Xōchitl]] [[nl:Bloem (plant)]] [[nds-nl:Bloeme]] [[cr:ᐧᐋᐱᑯᓐ]] [[ja:花]] [[no:Blomst]] [[nn:Blome]] [[pl:Kwiat]] [[pt:Flor]] [[ro:Floare]] [[qu:Wayta]] [[ru:Цветок]] [[scn:Ciuri]] [[simple:Flower]] [[sl:Cvet]] [[sr:Цвет]] [[su:Kembang]] [[fi:Kukka]] [[sv:Blomma]] [[ta:மலர்]] [[th:ดอกไม้]] [[vi:Hoa]] [[tr:Çiçek]] [[uk:Квітка]] [[vec:Fior]] [[yi:בלום]] [[zh:花]]